Griffith Hughes
Encyclopedia
The Reverend Griffith Hughes (fl
. 1707-1758), FRS
, was a naturalist and author. Hughes wrote The Natural History of Barbados, which included the first description of the grapefruit
(also known as "The Forbidden Fruit"). His work was praised by Linnaeus, but it has also been considered a "scientific fraud".
, Conwy, Wales, and christened on 29 April. Hughes attended St John's College, Oxford
, from May 1729 (although he does not appear to have taken a degree at this time) and he was ordained in London in 1732, and turned to the church for orders. He led Welsh congregations in Radnor
and Evansburg
, Pennsylvania
, from 1733–1736, from which he travelled extensively each week to share the gospel primarily in Welsh
. In 1736, Hughes left Pennsylvania for Barbados where he was assigned to St. Lucy's Parish as rector. From this location, he returned to London and published his findings, first an article in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
in 1743/4, and while there attended a winter meeting of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. He was next seen in London five years later which coincides with his selection as a Fellow of the Royal Society. Later that same year he was conferred BA and MA from Oxford. While listed as rector of St. Lucy's, Barbados, until 1750, it is unclear how much time he spent there given his return to London in 1743. The Royal Society
documents indicate that he resided in London in 1748, possibly in connection with his work at Oxford. The termination of his St. Lucy's rectorship coincides with the publication of his book, a work clearly supported by other artisans then in the King's service. The Royal Society indicates his presence for a ten-year period following his 1748 selection. There are no known records of him marrying, and his land claims in Pennsylvania were abandoned while he was in Barbados. The whereabouts of Hughes from 1758 onward are unknown.
supported his efforts to join the Anglican mission in colonial Pennsylvania with two Welsh congregations, St. David's in Radnor and St. James Perkiomen in Evansburg
. He was appointed by the SPG in October, 1732 at an annual salary of £60, and arrived in Pennsylvania early that winter. By March 1734, he claimed in a report to the SPG to have travelled over 1100 miles (1,770.3 km) in the Pennsylvania backcountry to serve various congregations, including one in the newly organized Lancaster County
. In September 1735 he reported that he broke his "knee pan" while travelling.
Hughes believed that providing Welsh language books and tracts to his congregations was a key task, and in December 1734 he volunteered to return to London to help translate and publish more material, but was turned down by the SPG. Hughes published a tract on "The Last Four Things" in Welsh in Pennsylvania, under the title Myfyrdodau Bucheddol ar y Pedwar Peth Diweddaf, but no copies have been located of the 150 that were printed at the time at his own expense. He appears to have added some of his ideas to the original material provided by the brother of his hometown vicar, John Morgan
. Passing remarks in correspondence and wills indicate Hughes' services were in extremely high demand, but that he was not able to meet the demand. Hughes' arrival in this part of Pennsylvania provided a Welsh rector to a region that had been starved of this service for several years. A dying parishioner thought highly enough of Hughes to provide a horse - "one bright bay young mare with a star on her forehead" - for him in his will in late summer 1734. He began the process of acquiring 400 acres (1.6 km²) of land in Berks County
and another 405 acres (1.6 km²) in Lancaster County.
In June 1736, Hughes reported that because of his deteriorating health, aggravated by lengthy journeys to Caernarvon
, Newtown
, and Evansburg
he had travelled to Barbados, stayed there for three months, and accepted a post at St. Lucy's Parish there. He then returned to Pennsylvania for four months. His departure was sudden and controversial and an audit was conducted by St. David's after his departure. Pleasants complains of the "desertion of his mission and unceremonious withdrawal" and relates a legend that his departure from Barbados was similarly sudden. His congregation at St. James complained in a letter to the SPG that "the said Mr. Hughes very seldom came near us," and of unspecified "misbehaviours." Hughes was the last clergyman at St. David's to preach regularly in Welsh.
In 1743 Hughes presented asbestos
, a material he brought from Pennsylvania, to the Royal Society. This was long before there were industrial applications for this substance.
and the expanding influence of the Royal Society in that locale. What is also clear is the extensive correspondence that Hughes used to guide him on his journey, to include patronage support at publication. His St. Lucy's rectorship kept him insulated while on the island, and yet allowed him access to these resources as required. From this ("leeward") continental island location, he probably returned to England in 1743 and 1748, as he was present at meetings held by the SPG in 1743 and the Royal Society during 1748. The first return coincides with the publication of his paper entitled "Of a Zoophyton resembling the Flower of a Marigold" provided to Philosophical Transactions, the first scientific publication originating from Barbados. His 1748 return finds him taking his BA and MA degrees from Oxford. On 9 June of that year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
and others. The text includes the following observations. From the Portuguese, the name Barbados means bearded, and probably describes the fig tree filament growth into the soil. In addition to the fig tree, Hughes describes the many uses, including medicinal, of the vegetation found on the island. One such example is the first description of the grapefruit which Hughes called "The Forbidden Fruit". The term yellow fever
was also coined by Hughes in this volume, although the association with the mosquito came much later.
The cartographer for his book was Thomas Jefferys
, the map-maker to George III, and his map of Barbados is shown here. The illustrations were created by Georg Dionysius Ehret
, who was renowned for his botanical drawings. Hughes was also the first to describe many of the sites around the island from an archaeological perspective. Portions of Hughes' 1750 publication were incorporated into a book on diseases of the West Indies. Grainger and Moseley reference Hughes' work especially as it applies to symptoms and treatment of diseases he observed while in Barbados.
The whereabouts of Mr. Hughes from the late 1750s remains uncertain. One source lists his date of passing as "1778?, location unspecified," while another has him returning to Barbados around 1758, the latter view aligns with the records from the Royal Society.
Hughes' detractors point out that this book did not achieve any scientific breakthroughs, and other works of the Old Colonial Era surpassed it. That being said, the book had a great many patrons, it was widely popular, and was the first publication of scientific research conducted on location in Barbados. Hughes' work was praised by Carl Linnaeus, but it has also been considered a "scientific fraud" although the work is frequently referenced by later work.
This work appears to be edited by Hutson, who incorporated previous work of other authors. It is unclear if the authors worked together, either through correspondence or in person on this work.
Floruit
Floruit , abbreviated fl. , is a Latin verb meaning "flourished", denoting the period of time during which something was active...
. 1707-1758), FRS
Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...
, was a naturalist and author. Hughes wrote The Natural History of Barbados, which included the first description of the grapefruit
Grapefruit
The grapefruit , is a subtropical citrus tree known for its sour fruit, an 18th-century hybrid first bred in Barbados. When found, it was named the "forbidden fruit"; it has also been misidentified with the pomelo or shaddock , one of the parents of this hybrid, the other being sweet orange The...
(also known as "The Forbidden Fruit"). His work was praised by Linnaeus, but it has also been considered a "scientific fraud".
Biography
Hughes was born in 1707, the son of Edward and Bridget Hughes of TowynTowyn
Towyn , is a seaside resort in the County Borough of Conwy, Wales.It is located between Rhyl, in Denbighshire, and Abergele in Conwy. According to the 2001 Census, together with neighbouring Kinmel Bay , it had a population 7,864, of which 10.7% could speak Welsh...
, Conwy, Wales, and christened on 29 April. Hughes attended St John's College, Oxford
St John's College, Oxford
__FORCETOC__St John's College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford, one of the larger Oxford colleges with approximately 390 undergraduates, 200 postgraduates and over 100 academic staff. It was founded by Sir Thomas White, a merchant, in 1555, whose heart is buried in the chapel of...
, from May 1729 (although he does not appear to have taken a degree at this time) and he was ordained in London in 1732, and turned to the church for orders. He led Welsh congregations in Radnor
Radnor, Pennsylvania
Radnor is a wealthy Main Line township. It is an unincorporated community in Radnor Township of Delaware County and Tredyffrin Township of Chester County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. It lies near the communities of Villanova and St...
and Evansburg
Evansburg, Pennsylvania
Evansburg is a census-designated place in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 2,129 at the 2010 census. It is a section of Lower Providence Township and is the namesake of Evansburg State Park.-Geography:...
, Pennsylvania
Province of Pennsylvania
The Province of Pennsylvania, also known as Pennsylvania Colony, was founded in British America by William Penn on March 4, 1681 as dictated in a royal charter granted by King Charles II...
, from 1733–1736, from which he travelled extensively each week to share the gospel primarily in Welsh
Welsh language
Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa...
. In 1736, Hughes left Pennsylvania for Barbados where he was assigned to St. Lucy's Parish as rector. From this location, he returned to London and published his findings, first an article in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is a scientific journal published by the Royal Society of London. It was established in 1665, making it the first journal in the world exclusively devoted to science, and it has remained in continuous publication ever since, making it the world's...
in 1743/4, and while there attended a winter meeting of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. He was next seen in London five years later which coincides with his selection as a Fellow of the Royal Society. Later that same year he was conferred BA and MA from Oxford. While listed as rector of St. Lucy's, Barbados, until 1750, it is unclear how much time he spent there given his return to London in 1743. The Royal Society
Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...
documents indicate that he resided in London in 1748, possibly in connection with his work at Oxford. The termination of his St. Lucy's rectorship coincides with the publication of his book, a work clearly supported by other artisans then in the King's service. The Royal Society indicates his presence for a ten-year period following his 1748 selection. There are no known records of him marrying, and his land claims in Pennsylvania were abandoned while he was in Barbados. The whereabouts of Hughes from 1758 onward are unknown.
Pennsylvania mission
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG)USPG
The USPG or United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel is a 300-year-old Anglican missionary organization, formed originally as the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in 1701...
supported his efforts to join the Anglican mission in colonial Pennsylvania with two Welsh congregations, St. David's in Radnor and St. James Perkiomen in Evansburg
Evansburg, Pennsylvania
Evansburg is a census-designated place in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 2,129 at the 2010 census. It is a section of Lower Providence Township and is the namesake of Evansburg State Park.-Geography:...
. He was appointed by the SPG in October, 1732 at an annual salary of £60, and arrived in Pennsylvania early that winter. By March 1734, he claimed in a report to the SPG to have travelled over 1100 miles (1,770.3 km) in the Pennsylvania backcountry to serve various congregations, including one in the newly organized Lancaster County
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
Lancaster County, known as the Garden Spot of America or Pennsylvania Dutch Country, is a county located in the southeastern part of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, in the United States. As of 2010 the population was 519,445. Lancaster County forms the Lancaster Metropolitan Statistical Area, the...
. In September 1735 he reported that he broke his "knee pan" while travelling.
Hughes believed that providing Welsh language books and tracts to his congregations was a key task, and in December 1734 he volunteered to return to London to help translate and publish more material, but was turned down by the SPG. Hughes published a tract on "The Last Four Things" in Welsh in Pennsylvania, under the title Myfyrdodau Bucheddol ar y Pedwar Peth Diweddaf, but no copies have been located of the 150 that were printed at the time at his own expense. He appears to have added some of his ideas to the original material provided by the brother of his hometown vicar, John Morgan
John Morgan (poet)
John Morgan was a Welsh clergyman, scholar and poet.-Life:...
. Passing remarks in correspondence and wills indicate Hughes' services were in extremely high demand, but that he was not able to meet the demand. Hughes' arrival in this part of Pennsylvania provided a Welsh rector to a region that had been starved of this service for several years. A dying parishioner thought highly enough of Hughes to provide a horse - "one bright bay young mare with a star on her forehead" - for him in his will in late summer 1734. He began the process of acquiring 400 acres (1.6 km²) of land in Berks County
Berks County, Pennsylvania
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 373,638 people, 141,570 households, and 98,532 families residing in the county. The population density was 435 people per square mile . There were 150,222 housing units at an average density of 175 per square mile...
and another 405 acres (1.6 km²) in Lancaster County.
In June 1736, Hughes reported that because of his deteriorating health, aggravated by lengthy journeys to Caernarvon
Caernarvon Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania
Caernarvon Township is a township in northeastern Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 4,278 at the 2000 census.-Geography:According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of , all of it land....
, Newtown
Newtown Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Newtown Township is a township in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States . Newtown Township is the oldest township in Delaware County. The population was 11,700 as of the 2000 census.-History:...
, and Evansburg
Evansburg, Pennsylvania
Evansburg is a census-designated place in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 2,129 at the 2010 census. It is a section of Lower Providence Township and is the namesake of Evansburg State Park.-Geography:...
he had travelled to Barbados, stayed there for three months, and accepted a post at St. Lucy's Parish there. He then returned to Pennsylvania for four months. His departure was sudden and controversial and an audit was conducted by St. David's after his departure. Pleasants complains of the "desertion of his mission and unceremonious withdrawal" and relates a legend that his departure from Barbados was similarly sudden. His congregation at St. James complained in a letter to the SPG that "the said Mr. Hughes very seldom came near us," and of unspecified "misbehaviours." Hughes was the last clergyman at St. David's to preach regularly in Welsh.
In 1743 Hughes presented asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
, a material he brought from Pennsylvania, to the Royal Society. This was long before there were industrial applications for this substance.
Research on Barbados
While on Barbados, he recorded his observations of the natural features, plants, and wildlife over a period of several years. These observations were included in his follow-on publication. Hughes' arrival on Barbados coincides with the completion of Codrington CollegeCodrington College
Codrington College is an Anglican theological college in St. John, Barbados. It was founded by Christopher Codrington, who after his death in 1710 left portions of his 'estates' - two slave labour plantations on Barbados and areas of Barbuda - to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in...
and the expanding influence of the Royal Society in that locale. What is also clear is the extensive correspondence that Hughes used to guide him on his journey, to include patronage support at publication. His St. Lucy's rectorship kept him insulated while on the island, and yet allowed him access to these resources as required. From this ("leeward") continental island location, he probably returned to England in 1743 and 1748, as he was present at meetings held by the SPG in 1743 and the Royal Society during 1748. The first return coincides with the publication of his paper entitled "Of a Zoophyton resembling the Flower of a Marigold" provided to Philosophical Transactions, the first scientific publication originating from Barbados. His 1748 return finds him taking his BA and MA degrees from Oxford. On 9 June of that year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
Return to London
Hughes is remembered for his work The Natural History of Barbados, published in London, 1750. This 314-page volume was organized into ten books and contains 29 plates, or pictures from Georg Dionysius EhretGeorg Dionysius Ehret
Georg Dionysius Ehret was a botanist and entomologist, and is best known for his botanical illustrations.Ehret was born in Germany to Ferdinand Christian Ehret, a gardener and competent draughtsman, and Anna Maria Ehret. Beginning his working life as a gardener's apprentice near Heidelberg, he...
and others. The text includes the following observations. From the Portuguese, the name Barbados means bearded, and probably describes the fig tree filament growth into the soil. In addition to the fig tree, Hughes describes the many uses, including medicinal, of the vegetation found on the island. One such example is the first description of the grapefruit which Hughes called "The Forbidden Fruit". The term yellow fever
Yellow fever
Yellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease. The virus is a 40 to 50 nm enveloped RNA virus with positive sense of the Flaviviridae family....
was also coined by Hughes in this volume, although the association with the mosquito came much later.
The cartographer for his book was Thomas Jefferys
Thomas Jefferys
Thomas Jefferys , "Geographer to King George III", was an English cartographer who was the leading map supplier of his day. He engraved and printed maps for government and other official bodies and produced a wide range of commercial maps and atlases, especially of North America.-Early work:As...
, the map-maker to George III, and his map of Barbados is shown here. The illustrations were created by Georg Dionysius Ehret
Georg Dionysius Ehret
Georg Dionysius Ehret was a botanist and entomologist, and is best known for his botanical illustrations.Ehret was born in Germany to Ferdinand Christian Ehret, a gardener and competent draughtsman, and Anna Maria Ehret. Beginning his working life as a gardener's apprentice near Heidelberg, he...
, who was renowned for his botanical drawings. Hughes was also the first to describe many of the sites around the island from an archaeological perspective. Portions of Hughes' 1750 publication were incorporated into a book on diseases of the West Indies. Grainger and Moseley reference Hughes' work especially as it applies to symptoms and treatment of diseases he observed while in Barbados.
The whereabouts of Mr. Hughes from the late 1750s remains uncertain. One source lists his date of passing as "1778?, location unspecified," while another has him returning to Barbados around 1758, the latter view aligns with the records from the Royal Society.
Hughes' detractors point out that this book did not achieve any scientific breakthroughs, and other works of the Old Colonial Era surpassed it. That being said, the book had a great many patrons, it was widely popular, and was the first publication of scientific research conducted on location in Barbados. Hughes' work was praised by Carl Linnaeus, but it has also been considered a "scientific fraud" although the work is frequently referenced by later work.
Publications
- The Natural History of Barbados, Published in London, 1750.
- Of a Zoophyton resembling the Flower of a Marigold, Philosophical Transactions.
Contributing Author
- On the treatment and management of the more common West-India diseases (1750–1802)
- Other authors: James GraingerJames GraingerJames Grainger Scottish doctor, poet and translator, is well-known figure in 18th century English literature. Grainger graduated in medicine from the University of Edinburgh in 1753. He is best known for his poem "Sugar-Cane" . He lived in St. Kitts from 1759 on...
, William WrightWilliam Wright (botanist)William Wright was a Scottish physician and botanist.Born in March 1735 in Crieff, Perthshire, he studied at Crieff Grammar School and the University of Edinburgh, and obtained a medical degree at St. Andrews . He served as an apprentice with G Dennistoun in Falkirk , and became a navy surgeon in...
, and Benjamin Moseley - Edited and Authored by: J. Edward Hutson
This work appears to be edited by Hutson, who incorporated previous work of other authors. It is unclear if the authors worked together, either through correspondence or in person on this work.