Halotus
Encyclopedia
Halotus was a servant to the Roman Emperor
Claudius
(August 1 10 BC – October 13 54), the fourth member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty
. He served Claudius as a taster
and as a chief steward
, and it was because of his occupation, which entailed close contact with Claudius at all times, that he is and was a suspect in the murder of the latter by poison. Along with Agrippina the Younger
, the wife of Claudius, Halotus was considered one of the most likely to have committed the murder, although speculation by ancient historians suggest that he may have been working under orders of Agrippina.
Following the death of Claudius, much public outrage ensued, and there was a clear desire in the general public that Halotus, and several other suspects (such as Tigellinus
, another servant who served Claudius), be executed. However, Nero, who succeeded the throne, allowed Halotus to continue as chief steward and taster; Halotus served Nero until the latter's death in 68, and Galba
's assumption of the throne.
Shortly after Galba became Emperor, he bestowed upon Halotus an "important procurator
ship". This new occupation of procurator resulted in Halotus' becoming a very wealthy man in Roman society. Galba's reason for allowing Halotus such a well-paying job when he was generally unpopular in the Roman society could not fairly be predicted; Galba often made decisions that were not well liked by the public, but which Galba often claimed were "for the economic good".
Halotus died close to the end of the century, his public reputation somewhat restored after his rise in stature and wealth. His date of death is not mentioned by ancient historians of the time, such as Tacitus
or Suetonius
, who were also some of the main recorders of the events surrounding Claudius' death, and the political trauma that followed. Whether Halotus was truly involved in the murder of Claudius and to what extent remains an unresolved point, as do many other aspects related to Claudius' passing.
As the Emperor's personal taster, Halotus would accompany Claudius to every banquet or dinner, and as chief steward, he would have been with Claudius and his family for the majority of the time. Thus he could have formed a relationship with Agrippina the Younger
suggesting the possibility of their collaboration in poisoning Claudius. It also meant that he would have been aware of details such as the Emperor's food preferences, his meal times and the specifics of his schedule, making it easier for him to commit the murder.
Halotus was also known to have been a eunuch. There are many possible reasons for this, but the most likely is related to the possibility of sexual contact between servant and master; a prohibition against sexual contact between royalty and servants, guards and slaves was not uncommon in many parts of the world during Halotus' era, and it was thought that male castration
would prevent this. Halotus may have been required to submit to castration in order to hold his position.
s (as Claudius was known to have been particularly fond of them), and Agrippina the Younger
, Claudius' wife, is thought to have been the most likely to have instigated the murder, or to have been the lead conspirator in the plot to overthrow Claudius.
Halotus, as the Emperor's official taster, would probably have had a role in the plot, deceiving Claudius into believing the food was safe to consume. He is a prime suspect because he would have had direct access to everything eaten by the Emperor on the night of his death. It has been suggested that Halotus may have been the murderer, but was working under orders of Agrippina. While it is uncertain whether Halotus would have had anything to gain personally from the death of the Emperor, Agrippina's political and personal advantage gained by the death of her husband was evident; with Claudius dead, Nero
, Agrippina's biological son, would be able to claim the throne. It was also known that the animosity between Agrippina and Claudius had grown during the months preceding the homicide. Other notable suspects included Locusta
, a professional poisoner, and Xenophon
, Claudius' royal physician
, who, in line with the suggestion that the poison was not immediately fatal, is said to have carried an ailing Claudius out of the banquet, taken him to his room, and forced a poisoned feather into his mouth on the pretence of encouraging him to regurgitate. Others say Xenophon used poisoned gruel
.
Other, more specific details about the poisoning have always been in dispute. While some argue that Claudius was in Rome, others claim he was in Sinuessa during the night he was poisoned. Whether one ingestion of poison was only enough to cause Claudius to fall ill, and whether a second dose was given to finally kill him is also debated.
The time of death is also much discussed; one version claims that the poison was so potent that he died instantly, while another says that he endured extreme agony until dawn of the following day. However, it has been suggested that Claudius may have died as late as noon on 13 October.
In 68 AD,, Nero's successor Galba
, despite public feeling, rewarded Halotus with a procurator
ship.
In addition, Galba ordered an edict relating to Tigellinus
, another servant who had possibly been involved in the murder of Claudius and whose death was also being called for among the Romans, rebuking the public for their harshness and outrage.
Galba may have chosen to award Halotus the lucrative procuratorship for any number of reasons; during his reign, Galba was known for making often unpopular political and economical actions, supposedly for what was, at least in Galba's mind, the financial health of the city. Halotus' great rise in status, and his subsequent prosperity, may have been in some way beneficial in Galba's eyes. Less specifically, the move would certainly have had some degree of benefit for Galba in some way, whether indirectly, or directly, economically or financially.
The office was described by Suetonius as "an important procuratorship", but few other details relating to the actual occupation were specified. Mentions of Halotus' receiving of the procuratorship include:
Why Halotus in particular was chosen for such a high-paid position is unclear. Why Halotus was even spared is also unclear, as almost all of Nero's former servants were killed on Galba's assumption of the throne, as Suetonius notes above.
As noted in the first quote above, the procuratorship was a "wealthy" one, leading to the possibility that the job involved tax
collection.
Claudius was cremated, and his ashes were interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus
on 24 October, 54 AD, ten days after his death. Despite the great political tumult Claudius' passing caused, Nero and the Senate very quickly deified Claudius, and Nero took the throne, just as Agrippina had wanted, at the young age of sixteen. The usurpation was politically easy for Nero; Claudius' will
had specified that either Nero or Britannicus
should take the throne following his death. Nero swiftly took firm control over an unsettled public; all but Claudius' most rigid and unmoving supporters became Nero's men after only a short period. This can be at least partially attributed to Nero's very well known opinions of Claudius, who was his adoptive father; Nero often politically and publicly criticised and even insulted the late Claudius, and many Claudian laws and policies were disregarded and abandoned under Nero's reasoning that Claudius was simply too stupid and senile to be given any consideration. In addition, Nero responded to allegations of poisoned mushrooms being used to kill Claudius by naming the fungus "the food of the gods", lending further credence to the idea that mushrooms were in fact used.
Details relating to his death are not recorded in any of the writings of ancient historians, and neither are any specific dates.
Roman Emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the emperor...
Claudius
Claudius
Claudius , was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy...
(August 1 10 BC – October 13 54), the fourth member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
The Julio-Claudian dynasty normally refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula , Claudius, and Nero, or the family to which they belonged; they ruled the Roman Empire from its formation, in the second half of the 1st century BC, until AD 68, when the last of the line,...
. He served Claudius as a taster
Food taster
A food taster is a person that takes food to be served to someone else to confirm that it is safe to eat and does not contain toxins or poisons. The person to whom the food is going to be served is usually an important person, like an emperor or monarch, or anyone that could possibly be under...
and as a chief steward
Butler
A butler is a domestic worker in a large household. In great houses, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the dining room, wine cellar, and pantry. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and housekeepers caring for the entire house and its...
, and it was because of his occupation, which entailed close contact with Claudius at all times, that he is and was a suspect in the murder of the latter by poison. Along with Agrippina the Younger
Agrippina the Younger
Julia Agrippina, most commonly referred to as Agrippina Minor or Agrippina the Younger, and after 50 known as Julia Augusta Agrippina was a Roman Empress and one of the more prominent women in the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
, the wife of Claudius, Halotus was considered one of the most likely to have committed the murder, although speculation by ancient historians suggest that he may have been working under orders of Agrippina.
Following the death of Claudius, much public outrage ensued, and there was a clear desire in the general public that Halotus, and several other suspects (such as Tigellinus
Tigellinus
Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus, also known as Ophonius Tigellinus and Sophonius Tigellinus , was a prefect of the Roman imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, from 62 until 68, during the reign of emperor Nero...
, another servant who served Claudius), be executed. However, Nero, who succeeded the throne, allowed Halotus to continue as chief steward and taster; Halotus served Nero until the latter's death in 68, and Galba
Galba
Galba , was Roman Emperor for seven months from 68 to 69. Galba was the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and made a bid for the throne during the rebellion of Julius Vindex...
's assumption of the throne.
Shortly after Galba became Emperor, he bestowed upon Halotus an "important procurator
Procurator (Roman)
A procurator was the title of various officials of the Roman Empire, posts mostly filled by equites . A procurator Augusti was the governor of the smaller imperial provinces...
ship". This new occupation of procurator resulted in Halotus' becoming a very wealthy man in Roman society. Galba's reason for allowing Halotus such a well-paying job when he was generally unpopular in the Roman society could not fairly be predicted; Galba often made decisions that were not well liked by the public, but which Galba often claimed were "for the economic good".
Halotus died close to the end of the century, his public reputation somewhat restored after his rise in stature and wealth. His date of death is not mentioned by ancient historians of the time, such as Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
or Suetonius
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius , was a Roman historian belonging to the equestrian order in the early Imperial era....
, who were also some of the main recorders of the events surrounding Claudius' death, and the political trauma that followed. Whether Halotus was truly involved in the murder of Claudius and to what extent remains an unresolved point, as do many other aspects related to Claudius' passing.
Servant
Halotus worked as a servant for Claudius and also held the position of official taster, an occupation which entailed his tasting of a portion of every meal Claudius ate each day for poison. Tasters also worked to detect less sinister problems with the Emperor's meal, such as whether the food was fit to be consumed.As the Emperor's personal taster, Halotus would accompany Claudius to every banquet or dinner, and as chief steward, he would have been with Claudius and his family for the majority of the time. Thus he could have formed a relationship with Agrippina the Younger
Agrippina the Younger
Julia Agrippina, most commonly referred to as Agrippina Minor or Agrippina the Younger, and after 50 known as Julia Augusta Agrippina was a Roman Empress and one of the more prominent women in the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
suggesting the possibility of their collaboration in poisoning Claudius. It also meant that he would have been aware of details such as the Emperor's food preferences, his meal times and the specifics of his schedule, making it easier for him to commit the murder.
Halotus was also known to have been a eunuch. There are many possible reasons for this, but the most likely is related to the possibility of sexual contact between servant and master; a prohibition against sexual contact between royalty and servants, guards and slaves was not uncommon in many parts of the world during Halotus' era, and it was thought that male castration
Castration
Castration is any action, surgical, chemical, or otherwise, by which a male loses the functions of the testicles or a female loses the functions of the ovaries.-Humans:...
would prevent this. Halotus may have been required to submit to castration in order to hold his position.
Poisoning of Claudius
Halotus is primarily remembered for his suspected involvement in the conspiracy and poisoning of Emperor Claudius on 13 October (times of death are in dispute; see below) 54 AD. It is possible that Claudius died of natural causes, and the actual manner of the poisoning, in regards to which poison may have been used, which food it could have been hidden in etc. remains unclear. It is, however, considered most likely, considering the writings of various ancient historians, that the poison was concealed in mushroomMushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
s (as Claudius was known to have been particularly fond of them), and Agrippina the Younger
Agrippina the Younger
Julia Agrippina, most commonly referred to as Agrippina Minor or Agrippina the Younger, and after 50 known as Julia Augusta Agrippina was a Roman Empress and one of the more prominent women in the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
, Claudius' wife, is thought to have been the most likely to have instigated the murder, or to have been the lead conspirator in the plot to overthrow Claudius.
Halotus, as the Emperor's official taster, would probably have had a role in the plot, deceiving Claudius into believing the food was safe to consume. He is a prime suspect because he would have had direct access to everything eaten by the Emperor on the night of his death. It has been suggested that Halotus may have been the murderer, but was working under orders of Agrippina. While it is uncertain whether Halotus would have had anything to gain personally from the death of the Emperor, Agrippina's political and personal advantage gained by the death of her husband was evident; with Claudius dead, Nero
Nero
Nero , was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68, and the last in the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great-uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor, and succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius' death....
, Agrippina's biological son, would be able to claim the throne. It was also known that the animosity between Agrippina and Claudius had grown during the months preceding the homicide. Other notable suspects included Locusta
Locusta
Locusta was a Roman serial killer during the 1st century AD.Locusta was born in the Roman province of Gaul. In AD 54, she may have been hired by Agrippina the Younger to kill the Emperor Claudius, possibly with a poisoned dish of mushrooms. In 55, she was convicted of poisoning another victim...
, a professional poisoner, and Xenophon
Gaius Stertinius Xenophon
Gaius Stertinius Xenophon , often referred to in ancient literature as simply Xenophon, was a physician who served the Roman Emperor, Claudius, the fourth member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
, Claudius' royal physician
Physician
A physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
, who, in line with the suggestion that the poison was not immediately fatal, is said to have carried an ailing Claudius out of the banquet, taken him to his room, and forced a poisoned feather into his mouth on the pretence of encouraging him to regurgitate. Others say Xenophon used poisoned gruel
Gruel
Gruel is a food preparation consisting of some type of cereal—oat, wheat or rye flour, or rice—boiled in water or milk. It is a thinner version of porridge that may be more often drunk than eaten and need not even be cooked...
.
Other, more specific details about the poisoning have always been in dispute. While some argue that Claudius was in Rome, others claim he was in Sinuessa during the night he was poisoned. Whether one ingestion of poison was only enough to cause Claudius to fall ill, and whether a second dose was given to finally kill him is also debated.
The time of death is also much discussed; one version claims that the poison was so potent that he died instantly, while another says that he endured extreme agony until dawn of the following day. However, it has been suggested that Claudius may have died as late as noon on 13 October.
Aftermath
Halotus
Much public outrage resulted both from the mystery shrouding Claudius' death, and the death itself; there was a clear desire among the people of Rome that anyone suspected in Claudius' murder be executed, and this included Halotus. However, Halotus was not killed, and Nero allowed him to retain his position throughout his reign.In 68 AD,, Nero's successor Galba
Galba
Galba , was Roman Emperor for seven months from 68 to 69. Galba was the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, and made a bid for the throne during the rebellion of Julius Vindex...
, despite public feeling, rewarded Halotus with a procurator
Procurator (Roman)
A procurator was the title of various officials of the Roman Empire, posts mostly filled by equites . A procurator Augusti was the governor of the smaller imperial provinces...
ship.
In addition, Galba ordered an edict relating to Tigellinus
Tigellinus
Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus, also known as Ophonius Tigellinus and Sophonius Tigellinus , was a prefect of the Roman imperial bodyguard, known as the Praetorian Guard, from 62 until 68, during the reign of emperor Nero...
, another servant who had possibly been involved in the murder of Claudius and whose death was also being called for among the Romans, rebuking the public for their harshness and outrage.
Galba may have chosen to award Halotus the lucrative procuratorship for any number of reasons; during his reign, Galba was known for making often unpopular political and economical actions, supposedly for what was, at least in Galba's mind, the financial health of the city. Halotus' great rise in status, and his subsequent prosperity, may have been in some way beneficial in Galba's eyes. Less specifically, the move would certainly have had some degree of benefit for Galba in some way, whether indirectly, or directly, economically or financially.
The office was described by Suetonius as "an important procuratorship", but few other details relating to the actual occupation were specified. Mentions of Halotus' receiving of the procuratorship include:
Why Halotus in particular was chosen for such a high-paid position is unclear. Why Halotus was even spared is also unclear, as almost all of Nero's former servants were killed on Galba's assumption of the throne, as Suetonius notes above.
Tax
To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Taxes are also imposed by many subnational entities...
collection.
Public and political reaction
For a while, it was pretended that Claudius was still alive, with all of those involved in the plot (including Halotus) undertaking their normal duties. This was done so that arrangements for Nero's succession could be totally secure. The news that Claudius was merely sick rather than dead spread widely and Agrippina making requests "on Claudius' behalf" further fooled the people into believing the Emperor still lived. Finally, after all of the preparations for Nero's succession had been made, the death was revealed to the Roman people.Claudius was cremated, and his ashes were interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus
Mausoleum of Augustus
The Mausoleum of Augustus is a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome, Italy. The Mausoleum, now located on the Piazza Augusto Imperatore, is no longer open to tourists, and the ravages of time and carelessness have stripped the ruins bare...
on 24 October, 54 AD, ten days after his death. Despite the great political tumult Claudius' passing caused, Nero and the Senate very quickly deified Claudius, and Nero took the throne, just as Agrippina had wanted, at the young age of sixteen. The usurpation was politically easy for Nero; Claudius' will
Will (law)
A will or testament is a legal declaration by which a person, the testator, names one or more persons to manage his/her estate and provides for the transfer of his/her property at death...
had specified that either Nero or Britannicus
Britannicus
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Britannicus was the son of the Roman emperor Claudius and his third wife Valeria Messalina. He became the heir-designate of the empire at his birth, less than a month into his father's reign. He was still a young boy at the time of his mother's downfall and Claudius'...
should take the throne following his death. Nero swiftly took firm control over an unsettled public; all but Claudius' most rigid and unmoving supporters became Nero's men after only a short period. This can be at least partially attributed to Nero's very well known opinions of Claudius, who was his adoptive father; Nero often politically and publicly criticised and even insulted the late Claudius, and many Claudian laws and policies were disregarded and abandoned under Nero's reasoning that Claudius was simply too stupid and senile to be given any consideration. In addition, Nero responded to allegations of poisoned mushrooms being used to kill Claudius by naming the fungus "the food of the gods", lending further credence to the idea that mushrooms were in fact used.
Death
Halotus died sometime late in the latter part of the 1st century. At the time of his death, he still held the procuratorship that he had been granted by Galba. He kept this position despite Galba's unseating very soon after it was bestowed, and the political uproars of The Year of the Four Emperors. At the time of his death, Halotus' public reputation had been at least partially restored, and he had accumulated some degree of wealth after he had been effectively cleared by Galba.Details relating to his death are not recorded in any of the writings of ancient historians, and neither are any specific dates.
See also
- Julio-Claudian family treeJulio-Claudian family treeThe Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire has a family tree complicated by multiple marriages between the members of the gens Julia and the gens Claudia.-Family tree:...
- Claudius' family tree - AssassinationAssassinationTo carry out an assassination is "to murder by a sudden and/or secret attack, often for political reasons." Alternatively, assassination may be defined as "the act of deliberately killing someone, especially a public figure, usually for hire or for political reasons."An assassination may be...
- Food poisoning