Healthism
Encyclopedia
Healthism, sometimes called public-healthism, is a neologism to describe a variety of ideological
constructs concerning health and medicine. The term ‘healthism’ was most likely first used by the political economist Robert Crawford, whose article ‘Healthism and the medicalization of everyday life’ was published in 1980. In this article Crawford describes how the new political ideology, which emerged in the US during the 1970s, "[situated] the problem of health and disease at the level of the individual." The term is also known for its use in the 1994 book The Death of Humane Medicine and the Rise of Coercive Healthism by Petr Skrabanek
. Skrabanek's use of "healthism", and most subsequent uses, are pejorative
in intent.
and statistics
, it nevertheless has a strong moralistic
flavour. Skrabanek cites a British
epidemiologist
, Geoffrey Rose
, as expressing the belief that most people live "unhealthily" and constitute a "sick population". But since (according to Skrabanek) this message would lead to a fatalistic
rejection of the lifestyle doctrine, it must be recast to be socially and politically acceptable, quoting Rose for the view that the "sick" society must be re-educated in its "perception of what is normal and acceptable."
Ultimately, Skrabanek claims that "healthism" either leads to, or is a symptom of, incipient totalitarianism
. Skrabanek claims that healthism justifies racism
, segregation, and eugenic
control; for the healthist, what is "healthy" is moral, patriotic, and pure; while what is "unhealthy" is foreign, polluted, and impure. The doctrine of "lifestylism" suggests that state actions to prescribe what is healthy or forbid what is unhealthy are limitless in scope, and offer no grounds for privacy
.
has described "healthism" as a doctrine that links the "public objectives for the good health and good order of the social body with the desire of individuals for health and well-being". But while Skrabanek's version is used as a basis to criticize state interventions to coerce people into healthy lifestyles, according to Rose, the capitalist
society finds coercion unnecessary. Since people want to be "healthy", the apparatus of advertising
and other means of capitalist persuasion leads to people internalizing the message of healthism without state intervention. Rose's healthism represents "responsibilization": here, the burden of remaining healthy is no longer on the shoulders of the government, but must be endured by individuals, who then are held to be blameworthy if they get sick. Rose's view represents an extension of Michel Foucault
's theory of "governmentality
".
Ideology
An ideology is a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to...
constructs concerning health and medicine. The term ‘healthism’ was most likely first used by the political economist Robert Crawford, whose article ‘Healthism and the medicalization of everyday life’ was published in 1980. In this article Crawford describes how the new political ideology, which emerged in the US during the 1970s, "[situated] the problem of health and disease at the level of the individual." The term is also known for its use in the 1994 book The Death of Humane Medicine and the Rise of Coercive Healthism by Petr Skrabanek
Petr Skrabanek
Petr Skrabanek was a leading doctor and professor of medicine. Author of several books and numerous articles, he was considered a leading scientist...
. Skrabanek's use of "healthism", and most subsequent uses, are pejorative
Pejorative
Pejoratives , including name slurs, are words or grammatical forms that connote negativity and express contempt or distaste. A term can be regarded as pejorative in some social groups but not in others, e.g., hacker is a term used for computer criminals as well as quick and clever computer experts...
in intent.
Skrabanek: the threat of health fascism
According to Skrabanek, "healthism" begins when the government begins to use propaganda and coercion to establish norms of health and begins to attempt to impose norms of a "healthy lifestyle." All human activities are weighed in the balance of their real or imagined effects on health: all human activities are divided into "healthy" and "unhealthy", prescribed and proscribed, approved and disapproved, responsible and irresponsible, based on this measure. In Skrabanek's view, "healthism" goes hand in hand with what he calls "lifestylism", another neologism, which Skrabanek uses to describe the view that most diseases are the result of unhealthy habits or behaviour. Skrabanek notes that while "lifestylism" is ostensibly founded on a basis of mathematicsMathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
and statistics
Statistics
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments....
, it nevertheless has a strong moralistic
Morality
Morality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
flavour. Skrabanek cites a British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
epidemiologist
Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of health-event, health-characteristic, or health-determinant patterns in a population. It is the cornerstone method of public health research, and helps inform policy decisions and evidence-based medicine by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive...
, Geoffrey Rose
Geoffrey Rose
Geoffrey Rose was an eminent epidemiologist whose ideas have been credited with transforming the approach to strategies for improving health. He was formerly the Emeritus Professor of Epidemiology at the Department of Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.-Early life and...
, as expressing the belief that most people live "unhealthily" and constitute a "sick population". But since (according to Skrabanek) this message would lead to a fatalistic
Fatalism
Fatalism is a philosophical doctrine emphasizing the subjugation of all events or actions to fate.Fatalism generally refers to several of the following ideas:...
rejection of the lifestyle doctrine, it must be recast to be socially and politically acceptable, quoting Rose for the view that the "sick" society must be re-educated in its "perception of what is normal and acceptable."
Ultimately, Skrabanek claims that "healthism" either leads to, or is a symptom of, incipient totalitarianism
Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism is a political system where the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible...
. Skrabanek claims that healthism justifies racism
Racism
Racism is the belief that inherent different traits in human racial groups justify discrimination. In the modern English language, the term "racism" is used predominantly as a pejorative epithet. It is applied especially to the practice or advocacy of racial discrimination of a pernicious nature...
, segregation, and eugenic
Eugenics
Eugenics is the "applied science or the bio-social movement which advocates the use of practices aimed at improving the genetic composition of a population", usually referring to human populations. The origins of the concept of eugenics began with certain interpretations of Mendelian inheritance,...
control; for the healthist, what is "healthy" is moral, patriotic, and pure; while what is "unhealthy" is foreign, polluted, and impure. The doctrine of "lifestylism" suggests that state actions to prescribe what is healthy or forbid what is unhealthy are limitless in scope, and offer no grounds for privacy
Privacy
Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves and thereby reveal themselves selectively...
.
Nikolas Rose: a Foucauldian view
Following Skrabanek, Nikolas RoseNikolas Rose
Nikolas Rose is a prominent British sociologist and social theorist. He is currently the James Martin White Professor of Sociology at the London School of Economics and acting director of LSE's BIOS Centre for the Study of Bioscience, Biomedicine, Biotechnology and Society.-Life and work:Before...
has described "healthism" as a doctrine that links the "public objectives for the good health and good order of the social body with the desire of individuals for health and well-being". But while Skrabanek's version is used as a basis to criticize state interventions to coerce people into healthy lifestyles, according to Rose, the capitalist
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
society finds coercion unnecessary. Since people want to be "healthy", the apparatus of advertising
Advertising
Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or services. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common...
and other means of capitalist persuasion leads to people internalizing the message of healthism without state intervention. Rose's healthism represents "responsibilization": here, the burden of remaining healthy is no longer on the shoulders of the government, but must be endured by individuals, who then are held to be blameworthy if they get sick. Rose's view represents an extension of Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault
Michel Foucault , born Paul-Michel Foucault , was a French philosopher, social theorist and historian of ideas...
's theory of "governmentality
Governmentality
Governmentality is a concept first developed by the French philosopher Michel Foucault in the later years of his life, roughly between 1977 and his death in 1984, particularly in his lectures at the Collège de France during this time...
".
See also
- Disease mongeringDisease mongering]Disease mongering is a pejorative term for the practice of widening the diagnostic boundaries of illnesses, and promoting public awareness of such, in order to expand the markets for those who sell and deliver treatments, which may include pharmaceutical companies, physicians, and other...
- False positive
- MedicalizationMedicalizationMedicalization is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions and problems, and thus come under the authority of doctors and other health professionals to study, diagnose, prevent or treat...
- OverdiagnosisOverdiagnosisOverdiagnosis is the diagnosis of "disease" that will never cause symptoms or death during a patient's lifetime. Overdiagnosis is the least familiar side effect of testing for early forms of disease – and, arguably, the most important...
- Petr SkrabanekPetr SkrabanekPetr Skrabanek was a leading doctor and professor of medicine. Author of several books and numerous articles, he was considered a leading scientist...
- SchooliosisSchooliosisSchooliosis, a pun on "school" and "scoliosis", is a term for a type of medical misdiagnosis. The word was coined by Petr Skrabanek and James McCormick....