Hikmat Abu Zayd
Encyclopedia
Hikmat Abu Zayd was an Egypt
ian politician and academic. She became the first female cabinet minister in Egypt in 1962. Her tenure as Minister of Social Affairs set a precedent. Afterwards, it became common for women to head that ministry. An avowed advocate of Nasserism
, Abu Zayd has had a major impact on Egyptian law and policy in the areas of social affairs
and insurance
.
in Asyut Governorate
, Abu Zayd grew up in a nationalist
household. Her father's job at the Egyptian State Railways
meant that he was assigned to many stations and was constantly on the move. Although her mother was illiterate, Abu Zayd was encouraged to read and was given access to her father's large library.
Abu Zayd received an advanced education. After completing her secondary education
at the Helwan Girls School, she obtained a licence
in history from Cairo University
(then named Fuad I University) in 1940. She progressed further in her academic studies by receiving a teaching certificate in 1941, a Master of Arts
in education in 1950, and finally a doctorate
in educational psychology
from the University of London
in 1957. She taught in the Women's College from 1955 to 1964, before being promoted to the rank of professor at Cairo University in 1965.
Gamal Abdel Nasser
over some sections in the Charter of National Action. Impressed, Nasser decided to appoint her as a minister. On 29 September 1962, Abu Zayd was named Minister of Social Affairs in Ali Sabri
's first government. She retained her role when the cabinet
was reshuffled
in March 1964, and served until 1965.
Abu Zayd was part of a new female leadership that shared the same lower middle class
background of Nasser and his fellow Free Officers
. Her appointment by Nasser was made in the context of his new socialist program, which put emphasis on broadening access to education and employment for all people, regardless of gender or social class. The 1950s and especially the 1960s were a time of increased female emancipation in Egypt. Polygyny
was on the decline, and women were increasingly holding key posts in government, industry and academia. The country's first two female parliamentarians, Rawya Ateya
and Amina Shukri, were elected in 1957. Karimah al-Sa'id became the deputy minister of education in the 1960s. Such high-level appointments of a few well-qualified women were showcased by the government, while the majority of Egyptian women remained stuck in the lower echelons of society.
Nasser's appointment of Abu Zayd was a politically significant move. Including a woman in the cabinet was a way for him to co-opt female-run charitable organizations into the Arab Socialist Union
(ASU), the country's newly formed sole political party
. Many of these associations were headed by women from prominent families and were protective of their independence, which Nasser found objectionable. His regime targeted women's organizations in the early 1960s and moved to take over most of their functions as state responsibilities, thereby depriving the associations of their momentum and autonomy. Abu Zayd implemented these policies, which were aimed at benefiting female workers and peasants. The Ministry of Social Affairs which she headed was increasingly specializing in women's issues. In 1963, it organized a general and wide-ranging women's conference to discuss, among other things, ways to increase female economic productivity
, working women's leading role in spreading family planning
, as well as the rise of family income through the employment of female members. Abu Zayd was named to preside over the conference, thereby cementing her status as leader of the women's movement in Egypt
. She became coordinator for women's activities within the Arab Socialist Union in 1963, at a time when the party had nearly 250,000 female members.
During her time in office, Abu Zayd worked on several different social issues. She strongly supported a law that prohibited Islamic oral repudiation
and made it mandatory for a husband to go to court to be able to divorce his wife. In order to combat mendicity
, she imposed prison terms on recidivist beggars who returned to begging after they had received state-sponsored training in handicrafts. In addition to registering NGO
s and expanding their development activities, she launched projects aimed at improving the status of rural women. One of the most sensitive tasks assigned to Abu Zayd was the relocation of thousands of Nubians, displaced by the construction of the Aswan Dam
, to newly built villages. Her management of the resettlement process led to her being nickname
d the "Merciful Heart of the Revolution" by Nasser. Nevertheless, the Nubians' forced displacement
remains controversial in Egypt to this day, with some blaming Nasser for the neglectful conditions in which the relocated Nubians have been living since then.
On a personal level, Abu Zayd faced domestic problems during her tenure as minister. Her husband was resentful of her responsibility-laden role and of the amount of time she spent outside the house. Their previously modest lifestyle changed considerably as she hired a 12-year-old houseboy
and was provided a chauffeur-driven car
by the government.
's ascension to the presidency, Abu Zayd's career progression was blocked. She moved to Libya
with her husband in 1974. Her Nasserist convictions were in line with the anti-colonialism
, anti-Zionism
and pan-Arabism
of Libya's leader Muammar Gaddafi
. Abu Zayd spent nearly two decades in Libya, during which time she taught political science
at Al Fateh University
in Tripoli
. She also penned articles and made speeches denouncing the Egyptian government.
Abu Zayd began criticizing President Sadat in the mid-1970s. She became a leader of the Egyptian National Front, which was set up in Damascus
in 1980 by General Saad El Shazly
. The organization called for the overthrow of Sadat's government. Due to her opposition to Sadat's peace overture to Israel
, Abu Zayd was accused of high treason
, terrorism
and spying, and was consequently deprived of her Egyptian nationality. This turned her into a stateless
political refugee
. A long legal battle ensued, which was finally resolved in late 1991 when a judge ruled that Abu Zayd and her husband were entitled to their Egyptian passport
s. She was also acquitted of the charges of high treason and terrorism.
upon her return, and rushed to visit Nasser's mausoleum
. During the 1990s, she opposed the Gulf War
, the Madrid Peace Conference
, as well as Israeli and American imperialism. She wrote articles for al-Osboa newspaper in 1998 dealing with the issues of Western imperialism and Arab unity. In late 2010, she was hospitalized at the Anglo-American Hospital in Cairo to receive treatment for her bone fracture
s. Farkhonda Hassan
visited her there on behalf of then First Lady Suzanne Mubarak
. During her stay at the hospital, Abu Zayd granted an interview to Almasry Alyoum
newspaper in which she defended Nasser's legacy and lamented the loss of tolerance in Egypt.
Abu Zayd died on July 30, 2011.
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
ian politician and academic. She became the first female cabinet minister in Egypt in 1962. Her tenure as Minister of Social Affairs set a precedent. Afterwards, it became common for women to head that ministry. An avowed advocate of Nasserism
Nasserism
Nasserism is an Arab nationalist political ideology based on the thinking of the former Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. It was a major influence on pan-Arab politics in the 1950s and 1960s, and continues to have significant resonance throughout the Arab World to this day. It also...
, Abu Zayd has had a major impact on Egyptian law and policy in the areas of social affairs
Social work
Social Work is a professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve the quality of life and wellbeing of an individual, group, or community by intervening through research, policy, community organizing, direct practice, and teaching on behalf of those afflicted with poverty or any real or...
and insurance
Social insurance
Social insurance is any government-sponsored program with the following four characteristics:* the benefits, eligibility requirements and other aspects of the program are defined by statute;...
.
Early life and education
Born in the village of Shaykh Daud, located near the city of al-QusiyyaCusae
Cusae or Kusai is the Greek name of a city in Upper Egypt, known to the Egyptians as Qis or Kis. Today, the city is known as el-Qusiya and is located on the west bank of the Nile, in the Asyut Governorate....
in Asyut Governorate
Asyut Governorate
Asyut Governorate is one of the governorates of Egypt. It stretches for about 120 km along the banks of the Nile. The capital of the governorate is the city of Asyut.-Etymology:...
, Abu Zayd grew up in a nationalist
Egyptian nationalism
Egyptian nationalism is an ideology that rose to prominence in Egypt before the British occupation to Egypt.- History :It is first used to refer to the native officers’ movement, led by Col. Ahmad ‘Urâbî, against Egyptian government policies that favored officers of Turkish, Circassian , or other...
household. Her father's job at the Egyptian State Railways
Egyptian National Railways
Egyptian National Railways is the national railway of Egypt and managed by the parastatal Egyptian Railway Authority .-1833–77:...
meant that he was assigned to many stations and was constantly on the move. Although her mother was illiterate, Abu Zayd was encouraged to read and was given access to her father's large library.
Abu Zayd received an advanced education. After completing her secondary education
Secondary education
Secondary education is the stage of education following primary education. Secondary education includes the final stage of compulsory education and in many countries it is entirely compulsory. The next stage of education is usually college or university...
at the Helwan Girls School, she obtained a licence
Licentiate
Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a licence. The term may derive from the Latin licentia docendi, meaning permission to teach. The term may also derive from the Latin licentia ad practicandum, which signified someone who held a certificate of competence to...
in history from Cairo University
Cairo University
Cairo University is a public university located in Giza, Egypt.The university was founded on December 21, 1908, as the result of an effort to establish a national center for educational thought...
(then named Fuad I University) in 1940. She progressed further in her academic studies by receiving a teaching certificate in 1941, a Master of Arts
Master of Arts (postgraduate)
A Master of Arts from the Latin Magister Artium, is a type of Master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The M.A. is usually contrasted with the M.S. or M.Sc. degrees...
in education in 1950, and finally a doctorate
Doctorate
A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field, A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder...
in educational psychology
Educational psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing...
from the University of London
University of London
-20th century:Shortly after 6 Burlington Gardens was vacated, the University went through a period of rapid expansion. Bedford College, Royal Holloway and the London School of Economics all joined in 1900, Regent's Park College, which had affiliated in 1841 became an official divinity school of the...
in 1957. She taught in the Women's College from 1955 to 1964, before being promoted to the rank of professor at Cairo University in 1965.
Tenure as minister
In 1962, Abu Zayd sat on the preparatory committee for the National Congress of Popular Forces. During her membership of the committee, she expressed her disagreement with PresidentPresident of Egypt
The President of the Arab Republic of Egypt is the head of state of Egypt.Under the Constitution of Egypt, the president is also the supreme commander of the armed forces and head of the executive branch of the Egyptian government....
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein was the second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death. A colonel in the Egyptian army, Nasser led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 along with Muhammad Naguib, the first president, which overthrew the monarchy of Egypt and Sudan, and heralded a new period of...
over some sections in the Charter of National Action. Impressed, Nasser decided to appoint her as a minister. On 29 September 1962, Abu Zayd was named Minister of Social Affairs in Ali Sabri
Ali Sabri
Ali Sabri was an Egyptian politician of Turkish origin.He was one of the second row of 1952 revolution officers, he was the head of Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate from 1956 to 1957...
's first government. She retained her role when the cabinet
Cabinet of Egypt
The Cabinet of Egypt is the chief executive body of the Arabic Republic of Egypt. It consists of the Prime Minister and the cabinet ministers....
was reshuffled
Cabinet shuffle
In the parliamentary system a cabinet shuffle or reshuffle is an informal term for an event that occurs when a head of government rotates or changes the composition of ministers in their cabinet....
in March 1964, and served until 1965.
Abu Zayd was part of a new female leadership that shared the same lower middle class
Lower middle class
In developed nations across the world, the lower middle class is a sub-division of the greater middle class. Universally the term refers to the group of middle class households or individuals who have not attained the status of the upper middle class associated with the higher realms of the middle...
background of Nasser and his fellow Free Officers
Free Officers Movement
In Egypt, the clandestine revolutionary Free Officers Movement was composed of young junior army officers committed to unseating the Egyptian monarchy and its British advisors...
. Her appointment by Nasser was made in the context of his new socialist program, which put emphasis on broadening access to education and employment for all people, regardless of gender or social class. The 1950s and especially the 1960s were a time of increased female emancipation in Egypt. Polygyny
Polygyny
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which a man has two or more wives at the same time. In countries where the practice is illegal, the man is referred to as a bigamist or a polygamist...
was on the decline, and women were increasingly holding key posts in government, industry and academia. The country's first two female parliamentarians, Rawya Ateya
Rawya Ateya
Rawya Ateya was an Egyptian woman who became the first female parliamentarian in the Arab world in 1957.-Early life:Rawya Ateya was born in Giza Governorate on 19 April 1926. She grew up in a politically active family. Her father was the secretary-general of the liberal Wafd Party in Gharbia, and...
and Amina Shukri, were elected in 1957. Karimah al-Sa'id became the deputy minister of education in the 1960s. Such high-level appointments of a few well-qualified women were showcased by the government, while the majority of Egyptian women remained stuck in the lower echelons of society.
Nasser's appointment of Abu Zayd was a politically significant move. Including a woman in the cabinet was a way for him to co-opt female-run charitable organizations into the Arab Socialist Union
Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)
The Arab Socialist Union was an Egyptian political party based on the principles of Nasserist Arab socialism.-Emergence:The Arab Socialist Union was founded in Egypt in December 1962 by Gamal Abdel Nasser as the country's sole political party. The ASU grew out of the Free Officers Movement of the...
(ASU), the country's newly formed sole political party
Single-party state
A single-party state, one-party system or single-party system is a type of party system government in which a single political party forms the government and no other parties are permitted to run candidates for election...
. Many of these associations were headed by women from prominent families and were protective of their independence, which Nasser found objectionable. His regime targeted women's organizations in the early 1960s and moved to take over most of their functions as state responsibilities, thereby depriving the associations of their momentum and autonomy. Abu Zayd implemented these policies, which were aimed at benefiting female workers and peasants. The Ministry of Social Affairs which she headed was increasingly specializing in women's issues. In 1963, it organized a general and wide-ranging women's conference to discuss, among other things, ways to increase female economic productivity
Productivity
Productivity is a measure of the efficiency of production. Productivity is a ratio of what is produced to what is required to produce it. Usually this ratio is in the form of an average, expressing the total output divided by the total input...
, working women's leading role in spreading family planning
Family planning
Family planning is the planning of when to have children, and the use of birth control and other techniques to implement such plans. Other techniques commonly used include sexuality education, prevention and management of sexually transmitted infections, pre-conception counseling and...
, as well as the rise of family income through the employment of female members. Abu Zayd was named to preside over the conference, thereby cementing her status as leader of the women's movement in Egypt
Feminism in Egypt
Feminism in Egypt has involved a number of social and political groups throughout its history. Although Egypt has in many respects been a forerunner in matters of reform particularly "in developing movements of nationalism, of resistance to imperialism and of feminism" its development in fighting...
. She became coordinator for women's activities within the Arab Socialist Union in 1963, at a time when the party had nearly 250,000 female members.
During her time in office, Abu Zayd worked on several different social issues. She strongly supported a law that prohibited Islamic oral repudiation
Divorce (Islamic)
In Islam there are separate rules for divorce for men and women under the terms of Islamic law . When a man has initiated a divorce the procedure is called . When a woman has initiated a divorce it is called khula ....
and made it mandatory for a husband to go to court to be able to divorce his wife. In order to combat mendicity
Begging
Begging is to entreat earnestly, implore, or supplicate. It often occurs for the purpose of securing a material benefit, generally for a gift, donation or charitable donation...
, she imposed prison terms on recidivist beggars who returned to begging after they had received state-sponsored training in handicrafts. In addition to registering NGO
Non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United Nations , and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are...
s and expanding their development activities, she launched projects aimed at improving the status of rural women. One of the most sensitive tasks assigned to Abu Zayd was the relocation of thousands of Nubians, displaced by the construction of the Aswan Dam
Aswan Dam
The Aswan Dam is an embankment dam situated across the Nile River in Aswan, Egypt. Since the 1950s, the name commonly refers to the High Dam, which is larger and newer than the Aswan Low Dam, which was first completed in 1902...
, to newly built villages. Her management of the resettlement process led to her being nickname
Nickname
A nickname is "a usually familiar or humorous but sometimes pointed or cruel name given to a person or place, as a supposedly appropriate replacement for or addition to the proper name.", or a name similar in origin and pronunciation from the original name....
d the "Merciful Heart of the Revolution" by Nasser. Nevertheless, the Nubians' forced displacement
Development-induced displacement
Development-induced displacement is the forcing of communities and individuals out of their homes, often also their homelands, for the purposes of economic development. It is a subset of forced migration...
remains controversial in Egypt to this day, with some blaming Nasser for the neglectful conditions in which the relocated Nubians have been living since then.
On a personal level, Abu Zayd faced domestic problems during her tenure as minister. Her husband was resentful of her responsibility-laden role and of the amount of time she spent outside the house. Their previously modest lifestyle changed considerably as she hired a 12-year-old houseboy
Houseboy
A Houseboy is typically a male servant or assistant who performs domestic or personal chores. Examples of its usage include:*An American slang term that originated in World War II for a native boy who helped a soldier perform basic responsibilities like cleaning, laundry, ironing, shoe-shining,...
and was provided a chauffeur-driven car
Take-home vehicle
A take-home vehicle is a vehicle issued to an employee by one's employer that is intended to be used for the purpose of fulfilling one's job duties, but that the employee is also permitted to drive to their residence while off duty...
by the government.
Exile in Libya
Following Nasser's death in 1970 and Anwar SadatAnwar Sadat
Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat was the third President of Egypt, serving from 15 October 1970 until his assassination by fundamentalist army officers on 6 October 1981...
's ascension to the presidency, Abu Zayd's career progression was blocked. She moved to Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
with her husband in 1974. Her Nasserist convictions were in line with the anti-colonialism
Anti-imperialism
Anti-imperialism, strictly speaking, is a term that may be applied to a movement opposed to any form of colonialism or imperialism. Anti-imperialism includes opposition to wars of conquest, particularly of non-contiguous territory or people with a different language or culture; it also includes...
, anti-Zionism
Anti-Zionism
Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionistic views or opposition to the state of Israel. The term is used to describe various religious, moral and political points of view in opposition to these, but their diversity of motivation and expression is sufficiently different that "anti-Zionism" cannot be...
and pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism
Pan-Arabism is an ideology espousing the unification--or, sometimes, close cooperation and solidarity against perceived enemies of the Arabs--of the countries of the Arab world, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts that the Arabs...
of Libya's leader Muammar Gaddafi
Muammar Gaddafi
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar Gaddafi or "September 1942" 20 October 2011), commonly known as Muammar Gaddafi or Colonel Gaddafi, was the official ruler of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then the "Brother Leader" of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011.He seized power in a...
. Abu Zayd spent nearly two decades in Libya, during which time she taught political science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
at Al Fateh University
Al Fateh University
University of Tripoli , formerly known as the Al Fateh University, is the largest and most important institute of higher education in Libya, providing undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate levels of study. It is located in the capital Tripoli...
in Tripoli
Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Western Tripoli , to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean , describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli is a Greek name that means "Three...
. She also penned articles and made speeches denouncing the Egyptian government.
Abu Zayd began criticizing President Sadat in the mid-1970s. She became a leader of the Egyptian National Front, which was set up in Damascus
Damascus
Damascus , commonly known in Syria as Al Sham , and as the City of Jasmine , is the capital and the second largest city of Syria after Aleppo, both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major...
in 1980 by General Saad El Shazly
Saad El Shazly
Saad Mohamed el-Husseiny el-Shazly was an Egyptian military personality. He was Egypt's chief of staff during the October War...
. The organization called for the overthrow of Sadat's government. Due to her opposition to Sadat's peace overture to Israel
Israel
The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
, Abu Zayd was accused of high treason
High treason
High treason is criminal disloyalty to one's government. Participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to overthrow its government, spying on its military, its diplomats, or its secret services for a hostile and foreign power, or attempting to kill its head of state are perhaps...
, terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition...
and spying, and was consequently deprived of her Egyptian nationality. This turned her into a stateless
Statelessness
Statelessness is a legal concept describing the lack of any nationality. It is the absence of a recognized link between an individual and any state....
political refugee
Refugee
A refugee is a person who outside her country of origin or habitual residence because she has suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or because she is a member of a persecuted 'social group'. Such a person may be referred to as an 'asylum seeker' until...
. A long legal battle ensued, which was finally resolved in late 1991 when a judge ruled that Abu Zayd and her husband were entitled to their Egyptian passport
Egyptian passport
Egyptian passports are issued to nationals of Egypt for the purpose of international travel. Besides serving as a proof of Egyptian citizenship, they facilitate the process of securing assistance from Egyptian consular officials abroad if needed....
s. She was also acquitted of the charges of high treason and terrorism.
Return to Egypt
After having recovered their nationality, Abu Zayd and her husband came back to Egypt in March 1992. She was treated as a VIPVery Important Person
A Very Important Person, or VIP is a person who is accorded special privileges due to his or her status or importance.Examples include celebrities, heads of state/heads of government, major employers, high rollers, politicians, high-level corporate officers, wealthy individuals, or any other...
upon her return, and rushed to visit Nasser's mausoleum
Mausoleum
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons. A monument without the interment is a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered to be within the...
. During the 1990s, she opposed the Gulf War
Gulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
, the Madrid Peace Conference
Madrid Conference of 1991
The Madrid Conference was hosted by the government of Spain and co-sponsored by the USA and the USSR. It convened on October 30, 1991 and lasted for three days. It was an early attempt by the international community to start a peace process through negotiations involving Israel and the Palestinians...
, as well as Israeli and American imperialism. She wrote articles for al-Osboa newspaper in 1998 dealing with the issues of Western imperialism and Arab unity. In late 2010, she was hospitalized at the Anglo-American Hospital in Cairo to receive treatment for her bone fracture
Bone fracture
A bone fracture is a medical condition in which there is a break in the continuity of the bone...
s. Farkhonda Hassan
Farkhonda Hassan
Farkhonda Hassan is a professor of Geology at the American University in Cairo and is chair of the Commission on Human Development and Local Administration of the Shura Council.-Education:...
visited her there on behalf of then First Lady Suzanne Mubarak
Suzanne Mubarak
Suzanne Mubarak is married to the former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak and was First Lady of Egypt until his ouster on 11 February 2011.-Early life and education:...
. During her stay at the hospital, Abu Zayd granted an interview to Almasry Alyoum
Almasry Alyoum
Al-Masry Al-Youm is an Egyptian privately owned daily newspaper that was first published in June 2004. It is published in Arabic and has a website in both Arabic and English...
newspaper in which she defended Nasser's legacy and lamented the loss of tolerance in Egypt.
Abu Zayd died on July 30, 2011.
See also
- List of the first female holders of political offices in Africa
- Women in Arab societiesWomen in Arab societiesWomen in the Arab world, as in other areas of the world, have throughout history experienced discrimination and have been subject to restrictions of their freedoms and rights. Some of these practices are based on religious beliefs, but many of the limitations are cultural and emanate from tradition...
- Women in EgyptWomen in Egypt-Women in Ancient Egypt:From the earliest preserved archaeological records, women in Egypt have been thought to be considered nearly equal to men in Egyptian society, regardless of marital status. Women were stated lower than men when it came to a higher leader in the Egyptian hierarchy counting...