Human rights in Mauritania
Encyclopedia
Human Rights in Mauritania is generally seen as poor, according to International observers.
With an estimated population of three million, Mauritania
is a highly centralized Islamic republic
governed by a military dictatorship
which in 2008 overthrew President Sidi Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, whose April 19, 2007 inauguration highlighted the country's first successful transition to democracy in its 50 years of independence. President Abdallahi replaced Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall
, who had taken power in the August 2005 coup d'état
that ended the 23-year presidency of Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya
. The 2007 presidential elections were judged free and fair by international and national observers, civilian authorities were believed generally maintained effective control of the security forces.
The human rights record of Mauritania has been poor since its independence in 1960. Coming from French Colonial Rule
, the state was ethnically divided between Arabic speaking Berber
tribal confederations of the north and sedentary black populations of the south, many of whom were traditionally bonded communities or enslaved
individuals. The Mauritanian Government
has a history of discriminating against these Toucouleur
s and Soninke people within its borders. One such example occurred in 1987, when the government imprisoned southerners and threw others out of the army, resulting in the Mauritania–Senegal Border War.
In governance, the nation has only ever had one successful transfer to elected leadership, which occurred 2007, and this was reversed by the military in 2008, who seized power. Thereafter, public protest
s were suppressed by force, and press dissent has been outlawed. The military crackdown on the activities of a small Islamic militant population was intensified since early 2008, before the coup, and has continued with widespread arrests and detentions. As an Islamic state
, there is no freedom of religion
in Mauritania.
The Ould Cheikh Abdallahi government's human rights record improved during the return to democracy
; however, there were reports of mistreatment of detainees by security forces, harsh prison conditions, impunity, prolonged pretrial detention, executive branch influence on the judiciary, and restrictions on freedom of the press
, freedom of assembly
, and freedom of association
. There was a widespread public perception of governmental corruption and a lack of access to government information. Sexism
, female genital mutilation
(FGM), child labour, human trafficking
, and the political marginalization of largely southern-based ethnic groups continued to be problems.
The Abdallahi government had acted to address the country's most serious human rights problems, most significantly by passing legislation criminalizing the lingering practice of slavery
and initiating preparations for the repatriation of thousands of Afro‑Mauritanians living as refugees in Senegal
and Mali
following their expulsion during ethnic tensions and violence in 1989-91. Following the 6 August 2008 coup, the military government of Mauritania has faced severe international sanctions, internal unrest, and has been accused by Amnesty International
of practicing coordinated torture
against criminal and political detainees. Amnesty has accused the Mauritania legal system, both before and after the 2008 coup, of functioning with a complete disregard of legal procedure, fair trial, or humane imprisonment. Further, Amnesty has accused the Mauritanian government of an institutionalized and continuous use of torture
throughout its post independence history.
s in 2007.
In November a protester was shot and killed by police lacking training who responded with deadly force during a demonstration.
On June 5, a court cited poor police evidence collection procedures in acquitting Ismael Issa, an Algerian Islamist who reportedly was tortured while in custody in 2005; the court acquitted on the same basis 24 of 25 codefendants accused of "acts against the state" for their alleged ties to the terrorist Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat, now known as Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
(AQIM).
conditions persisted in spite of government efforts to relieve overcrowding by opening a new central prison in Nouakchott in June. Prisoners reported the theft of personal property during the transfer between facilities. The new prison, designed to house 800 prisoners, replaced the former Nouakchott prison that had a capacity of 250. At year's end approximately 650 prisoners were incarcerated in the new prison.
In March inmates at the Nouadhibou prison protested poor conditions. Guards reportedly fired warning shots into the air, but there were no injuries reported.
Serious overcrowding and inadequate sanitation
facilities in some prisons reportedly contributed to diseases such as tuberculosis
, diarrhea
, and dermatological ailments
. Medical supplies, mainly provided by an international nongovernmental organization (NGO), remained insufficient in all prisons. Budget allocations to improve prison conditions remained insufficient in all prisons. Prisoners with high-level connections and with families to bring them food, medicines, and reading material fared better than the less privileged and citizens of other countries.
Guard force management generally enforced regulations against beatings and torture; however, there continued to be credible reports of beatings and abuse in police detention centers and several prisons throughout the country.
Children of female prisoners either remained with their mothers or the Ministry of Justice gave temporary custody to other family members. The Noura Foundation, an NGO working in the women's prison, provided education and vocational training to female prisoners and partnered with the Catholic
charity Caritas
to provide education, sports, and vocational services in the juvenile detention center. Pretrial detainees in all detention facilities were frequently held with convicted prisoners as a result of overcrowding.
The government permitted prison visits by NGOs, diplomats, and international human rights observers. The International Committee of the Red Cross
(ICRC) had access to prisons and conducted multiple prison visits in accordance with its standard modalities.
, a specialized paramilitary group under the Ministry of Defense, is responsible for maintaining civil order in and outside metropolitan areas.
The police were viewed as unprofessional and unwilling to investigate minor complaints by persons who were not well connected. The police also lacked equipment and training. Corruption was a problem. Police in some regions rearrested former criminals and demanded bribes for their release. Some indicted detainees were released before trial without explanation. The government often did not hold security officials accountable or prosecute them for abuses. During the year there were reports of investigations and prosecutions of police on human rights grounds. In July the Internal Affairs Division was involved in a malfeasance investigation, which led to the arrest of the country's INTERPOL liaison officer on drug smuggling charges.
s, but they were not commonly used. The law requires that courts review the legality of a person's detention within 48 hours of arrest; however, the police can extend the period for another 48 hours, and a prosecutor or court can detain persons for up to 15 workdays in national security cases. Only after the prosecutor submits charges does a suspect have the right to counsel
. Attorneys for the indigent are provided at state expense. While one article of the law provides detainees with the right to prompt judicial determination of the charges against them, an older law allows the government to detain persons for up to 30 days without a judicial determination. Unlike in the previous year, the new government generally respected the established timelines for pressing charges, with a significant drop reported in the number of detainees held without charge. There was no functional bail system.
In October the government arrested seven individuals for alleged ties to terrorist groups. Four of the seven were released without charge, and three were formally charged (one with the additional charge of possession of explosives) within the prescribed time.
One person was arrested during the year for proselytizing.
In November police shot and killed a protester in the town of Kankossa after rioters set fire to the prefect's office and residence during a demonstration over increased food and energy costs.
Human rights groups reported a reduction in the length and frequency of pretrial detention, although approximately 30 cases of extended pretrial detention reportedly remained at year's end. In previous years there were credible reports of persons remaining in pretrial detention for months or, in some cases, years. The average amount of time that pretrial detainees were held during the year was two work days for normal cases and two work weeks for cases involving matters of national security.
being granted in 2007.
The government continued to work on judicial reform, including training judges, prosecutors, and police on procedures for applying laws, particularly those concerning human rights, antislavery, money laundering
, and trafficking in persons. The government also worked to professionalize judges by calling for the hiring of judges from academic circles and by training prosecutors and judges to increase judicial efficiency.
There is a single system of courts consistent with modified principles of Sharia
law. Departmental, regional, and labor tribunals are the courts of first instance at the lower level. The 53 departmental tribunals, composed of a president and magistrates with traditional Islamic legal training, heard civil cases involving sums less than $37 (10,000 ouguiya) and family issues, including domestic, divorce, and inheritance cases. A total of 13 regional tribunals accepted appeals in commercial and civil matters from the departmental tribunals and heard misdemeanor cases. At the middle level, three courts of appeal, each with seven chambers (civil, commercial, administrative, and penal chambers, as well as criminal, minors, and labor courts) heard appeals from the regional courts and have original jurisdiction for felonies.
The Supreme Court, whose members are appointed by the president and subject to annual review, was nominally independent and reviewed decisions and rulings made by the courts of appeal to determine their compliance with law and procedure. Constitutional review was within the purview of a six-member constitutional council. The Supreme Court undertook an annual review to determine whether lower courts applied the law correctly and followed proper procedures. Reviews also served as a basis for evaluating the reform process and reassigning judges based on their qualifications.
. Defendants have a right to a public trial
, but juries
are not used. All defendants, regardless of the court or their ability to pay, have the legal right to representation by counsel during the proceedings. If defendants lacked the ability to pay, the court appointed an attorney from a list prepared by the National Order of Lawyers, which provided a defense free of charge. There is a presumption of innocence
and the right to appeal. The foregoing rights generally were observed in practice.
Shari'a provides the legal principles upon which the law and legal procedure are based; the courts did not treat women as the equals of men in all cases.
A special court hears the cases of children under the age of 18. Children who appeared before the court received more lenient sentences than adults, and extenuating circumstances received greater consideration in juvenile cases. The minimum age for children to be tried was 12. Those between the ages of 12 and 18 were tried and, if convicted, sentenced to the juvenile detention center.
s or detainees during 2007.
Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that the pre-coup government surveilled opposition political activities.
noted the country's improvements in press freedom. Prior to the August 2008 coup, individuals generally could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, while the independent media were active and expressed a variety of views without restriction.
On August 16, 2007, bodyguards of the prime minister allegedly beat Radio Mauritanie reporter Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Moghdad after he attempted to bypass security checks. On August 24, Reporters Without Borders called for Minister of Justice Limam Ould Teguedi to intervene to allow a complaint to be filed against the government. The prime minister's office conducted an internal investigation that concluded with a formal apology to Ould Moghdad, who then ended his efforts to file a complaint.
The High Authority for Press and Broadcast Media, which the transitional government created in October 2006, continued to play an advisory and mediating role on issues concerning the media. For example, the Authority worked to address the Ould Moghdad incident.
NGOs and the privately owned press openly criticized the government and its leaders. Some journalists practiced self‑censorship in areas deemed sensitive, refraining from commenting on Shari'a law or directly criticizing foreign embassies.
In December 2007 the First Lady withdrew her October libel suit against a journalist who accused her of using state funds for personal use and for involvement in government contracts and concessions.
Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that the government restricted the political opposition's ability to broadcast on government radio and television prior to the 2008 coup.
There were no developments in the case of two newspaper employees arrested in 2005 for publishing a story on a pornographic
film reportedly made in Nouakchott's central prison. At year's end, the case had yet to go to trial, and the accused remained free.
or reports that the government monitored email
or Internet chat room
s in 2010. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. There is a law prohibiting child pornography with penalties of two months to one year imprisonment and a 160,000 to 300,000 ouguiya ($550 to $1,034) fine.
Internet access was available in urban areas throughout the country, with home access common among the affluent and internet café
s serving the remainder of the population. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2009, approximately 2.28 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet.
Between 16 March and 19 March 2009 and again on 25 June 2009 the news Web site Taqadoumy was blocked. On 26 February 2010, Hanevy Ould Dehah, director of Taqadoumy, received a presidential pardon after being detained since December 2009 despite having served his sentence for crimes against Islam and paying all imposed fines and legal fees. Dehah, who was originally arrested in June 2009 on charges of defamation of presidential candidate Ibrahima Sarr for publishing an article stating that Sarr bought a house with campaign money from General Aziz. Dehah, was sentenced in August 2009 to six months in prison and fined 30,000 ouguiya ($111) for committing acts contrary to Islam and decency. The sentencing judge accused Dehah of creating a space allowing individuals to express anti-Islamic and indecent views, based on a female reader's comments made on the Taqadoumy site calling for increased sexual freedom.
, and the government generally respected this right. The law requires that organizers apply to the local prefect ("hakem") for permission to hold large meetings or assemblies, and permission was generally granted.
In September 2007 a meeting of the national NGO Cyber Forum was blocked by the minister in charge of relations with parliament and civil society, reportedly because he had not been invited. The minister claimed to have ordered police to block access to the organization's headquarters because a faction of the NGO had complained it was being excluded from the meeting.
In October and November 2007 police forcibly dispersed multiple unsanctioned demonstrations against the perceived high cost of living when they posed a threat to property or public safety. One protestor was fatally wounded in the town of Kankossa, where the prefect's home and office were set on fire
.
During that year the government recognized several human rights organizations, including those affiliated with Afro-Mauritanian refugees.
The government recognized 18 new political parties
during 2007, bringing to 53 the number of registered political parties. Political parties and numerous NGOs generally functioned openly, issued public statements, and chose their own leadership.
. The government did not register religious groups. NGOs, including humanitarian and development NGOs affiliated with religious groups, had to register with the Ministry of the Interior.
The government continued to prohibit proselytizing and the distribution of any material that "is against Islam
or contradicts or otherwise threatens Islam." Bible
s were neither printed nor publicly sold in the country; however, the possession of bibles and other Christian
religious materials in private homes was not illegal, and bibles and other religious publications were available among the small Christian community.
In September 2007 Nouakchott
police arrested a Christian convert on charges of proselytizing. After several days' detention, he was released with a verbal warning.
There were no developments in the closure of churches led by six West African Protestant pastors whom the government briefly detained in May 2006.
. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts.
, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and while the government generally respected these rights, persons lacking identity cards could not travel freely in some regions. Lack of identity documents particularly affected Afro-Mauritanians in the southern provinces, many of whom were former refugees in Senegal who had independently decided to return to Mauritania. The government set up roadblocks where gendarmes, police, or customs officials checked the papers of travelers and often demanded bribes. During the year the government generally maintained fewer roadblocks and reduced the time taken in questioning and conducting vehicle searches; however, there were periodic reports of more stringent searches in the southern border areas and in the eastern regions where the terrorist group AQIM was believed to be active. The government launched extensive border security operations following the December 24 AQIM killings of four French tourists near Aleg.
The law does not prohibit forced exile
, but there were no reports that the government used it.
The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that between 25,000 and 34,000 Mauritanian refugee
s from the 1989-91 crisis remained in Senegal, and was undertaking a repatriation program with the new Abdallahi government and the governments of Senegal and Mali. In November the government held a three-day national dialogue concerning the return of refugees and, in December, established an interagency office to coordinate the returns scheduled to begin in 2008.
or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
or its 1967 protocol, or the 1967 African Union Convention on the Status of Refugees, but the former government established a system for providing such protection. In practice the government provided protection against "refoulement," the return of persons to a country where there is reason to believe they feared persecution, and granted refugee status or asylum.
The government continued to provide temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol and during the year provided it to approximately 800 persons.
The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees or asylum seekers. The former government accepted the UNHCR's registration of approximately 800 asylum seekers, mostly from Sierra Leone
and Liberia
, and the government worked with the UNHCR during the year to provide continued assistance for these individuals.
During the year the government assisted the UNHCR, the European Commission
, and the government of Spain in returning migrants attempting to enter the Canary Islands by sea to their countries of origin. The Spanish Technical Corporation operated a migrant reception center in Nouadhibou to process returned migrants and to ensure that they received needed nutritional and medical care. The government gave the UNHCR access to returned migrants to determine if they were eligible for refugee status. In light of freedom of movement agreements with members of the Economic Community of West African States, the government allowed West African migrants to remain in the northern region, deporting only those found in the act of attempting illegal travel to the Canary Islands.
s culminated in the election of President Sidi Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi in March. The elections were judged by national and international observers to be generally free and fair. Despite some charges that the previous military transition government provided tacit support to the Abdallahi campaign, second-round opponent Ahmed Ould Dadda accepted the results of the election and assumed a cabinet-level position as the leader of the opposition.
The 95-person National Assembly included representatives from 12 of the 25 parties that contested the 2006 legislative elections, as well as 41 independents.
In October opposition parties protested President Abdallahi's decision to support the establishment of a new political party uniting the legislative majority. Opposition and civil society leaders feared the new party would revert to the "party of the state" politics of the past by drawing on state resources and depriving other parties of equal standing. Opposition parties criticized the role of the secretary general of the presidency, a cabinet-rank position, as the primary coordinator of the new party.
Following a July 2006 decree requiring all political parties to reserve 20 percent of positions on their legislative and municipal candidate lists for women, female candidates were elected to approximately that percentage of seats in the National Assembly. The government includes two female ministers, and in September the government appointed two female governors (walis) for the first time in the country's history. In October the government named several female vice governors and prefects.
The new government increased the number of Afro-Mauritanians and Black Moor
s in key government positions, although they remained underrepresented as a percentage of population. Of the 30 cabinet members, there were three Black Moors and three Afro‑Mauritanians. Two of the 13 governors were Black Moors, and two were Afro-Mauritanian. Of the 53 prefects (hakems), there were three Black Moors and 11 Afro‑Mauritanians.
In an effort to curb high-level corruption, the government introduced an annual requirement for senior officials, including the president, to publicly declare their personal assets, although critics accused some officials of hiding assets in the names of family members. In December the government launched a nationwide anticorruption information campaign and established a Commission for Financial Transparency in Public Affairs to oversee corruption cases and to be the repository for the declarations. The nine-member commission is headed by the presidents of the Supreme Court, accounts court, and High Islamic Council.
The government cooperated with international governmental organizations on various issues, including prison conditions and refugee services, and permitted visits by the ICRC.
, including spousal rape, is illegal; however, the government did not enforce the law effectively, and NGOs reported that the incidence of unreported rape was high. In August 2007 the Nouakchott
Criminal Court convicted seven rapists and sentenced them to five to 15 years of hard labor. Several cases were reported, however, that wealthy rape suspects avoided prosecution or, if prosecuted, prison time.
The trial for the 2005 alleged rape of M'barka, who was forced into domestic servitude and charged with sexual misconduct for being pregnant and unwed after she was allegedly raped by a member of the household, had not begun by year's end.
Domestic abuse and violence are illegal; however, the government did not always enforce the law effectively. Human rights monitors and lawyers reported few cases of domestic violence, which was believed to be underreported due to the stigma of victimization. Penalties included imprisonment, but convictions were very rare. The police and judiciary occasionally intervened in domestic abuse cases, but women in rural areas rarely sought legal redress, relying instead upon family and ethnic group members to resolve domestic disputes.
Although prostitution is illegal, NGOs indicated that it was a growing problem in some urban areas, particularly among Afro‑Mauritanian and Black Moor
women. In Nouakchott and Nouadhibou
, there were reports that Chinese women were trafficked
for sexual exploitation in brothels catering to foreigners, although there were no known cases of women seeking assistance.
Women have legal rights to property and child custody, and these rights were recognized among the more modern and urbanized population. By local tradition, a woman's first marriage
requires parental consent. In accordance with Shari'a as applied in the country, marriage and divorce
do not require the woman's consent, polygyny
is allowed, and a woman does not have the right to refuse her husband's wish to marry additional women. In practice polygyny was very rare among Moors but was common among other ethnic groups. It was common in Moor society for a woman to obtain at the time of marriage a contractual agreement stipulating that her husband must agree to end their marriage if he chooses an additional wife. Arranged marriages were increasingly rare, particularly among the Moor population. Women frequently initiated the termination of a marriage, which most often was done by repudiation of husband or wife rather than formal divorce.
Women still faced legal discrimination. The testimony of two women was necessary to equal that of one man. The courts grant only half the amount of an indemnity
to the family of a woman who has been killed that they award for a man's death. Formulas applied to property distribution varied widely from case to case and court to court. In addition the validity of and right to establish prenuptial agreements was not always respected. The personal status code, which was published and assumed force of law in August 2001, provides a framework for the consistent application of secular law and Shari'a-based family law.
Women did not face legal discrimination in areas not addressed specifically by Shari'a. The law provides that men and women should receive equal pay for equal work. While not applied universally, the two largest employers—the civil service and the state mining company—observed this law. In the modern wage sector, women also received family benefits, including three months of maternity leave.
The government sought to open new employment opportunities for women in sectors that were traditionally filled by men, such as health care, communications, police, and customs services. All announcements for government jobs encouraged female applicants. Women became more involved in the fishing industry
and established several women's fishing cooperatives.
The Secretariat for Women's Affairs worked with many NGOs and cooperatives to improve the status of women. The government, women's groups, and national and international NGOs organized meetings, seminars, and workshops throughout the year to publicize women's rights.
; however, inadequate funding hampered these programs.
. The completion rate for primary school remained below 60 percent, and most students—particularly those in rural and semiurban areas—did not advance beyond primary school. Education was free through university
level, although many families were unable to afford school supplies. Classes were fully integrated, including boys and girls from all social and ethnic groups. Almost all children, regardless of gender or ethnic group, attended Koranic school between the ages of five and seven and gained at least rudimentary skills in reading and writing Arabic
.
(FGM) was practiced among all ethnic groups and most often on young girls, often on the seventh day after birth and almost always before the age of six months. There is no law explicitly prohibiting FGM; however, there is a law that "prohibits acts that could harm children," and some legal scholars believed this could be interpreted to outlaw FGM. According to the most recent internationally sponsored study (2001), three-fourths of all women between the ages of 15 and 49 had been subjected to FGM. National human rights organizations estimated the actual incidence rate to be even higher. Local experts agreed that the least severe form of excision was practiced and not infibulation
, the most severe form. The practice of FGM has decreased in the modern urban sector. In September the government launched a national strategy against FGM; however, women's rights organizations criticized the government for not coordinating with civil society.
The government and international NGOs continued to coordinate anti-FGM efforts. These efforts focused on eradicating the practice in hospitals, discouraging midwives from practicing FGM, and educating populations. The High Islamic Council of Mauritania, the Islamic Scholar Association, and the National Forum for Women's Rights continued to emphasize that FGM carried serious health risks and was not a religious requirement. Government hospitals and licensed medical practitioners were barred from performing FGM, and several government agencies worked to prevent practitioners from continuing this custom. According to several women's rights
experts, the campaign against FGM appeared to be changing attitudes. In October 2007 the National Assembly of Mauritania
began a series of provincial meetings, supported by UNICEF, focusing on FGM.
") prior to marriage, which is practiced only among White Moor tribal groups. Increased government and civil society attention to the problem appeared to have led to a greater awareness of the health risks associated with gavage, countering traditional views encouraging female obesity
.
; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, and within the country. The government did not prosecute or sentence anyone for trafficking during 2007.
The country was a source and destination for men, women, and children trafficked for forced labor. Numerous NGO reports suggested that forced labor took several forms. Slavery
-related practices, and possibly slavery itself, persisted in isolated areas where a barter economy still prevailed. Several reports stated that young girls from remote regions, and possibly from western Mali, worked as unpaid housemaids in some wealthy urban homes. An unknown number of young boys ("talibes"), nearly all from Pulaar
tribes, begged in the streets as part of a "work‑study" arrangement with "marabouts," or religious teachers, in exchange for receiving religious instruction. There were reliable reports that a small number of marabouts forced their talibes to beg for over 12 hours a day and provided them with insufficient food and shelter.
The government continued a program to reduce the number of talibes and partnered with several NGOs to provide needy talibes with basic medical and nutritional care. However, government assistance and protection services for trafficking victims remained limited, with most resources going towards prevention, in the form of training for police, gendarmes, and legal officials to better identify, investigate, and convict traffickers. Human rights organizations criticized the special police unit established to protect the talibes for doing little to enforce laws.
The newly formed Commissariat for Social Protection and Food Security was responsible for addressing trafficking, but the office was inadequately staffed. During the year the government did not identify any trafficking victims.
against persons with disabilities in education, employment, or the provision of other state services, and there were no reports of governmental or societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. The government did not mandate preference in employment or education or public accessibility for persons with disabilities, although it did provide some rehabilitation and other assistance for such persons. In October 2006 the government passed a law to increase protections and benefits for persons with disabilities.
s faced governmental discrimination. The inconsistent issuance of national identification cards, which were required for voting, effectively disenfranchised numerous members of southern minority groups. Racial and cultural tension and discrimination occurred between Moors
and Afro‑Mauritanians. The Moors were divided among numerous ethno‑linguistic groups and further distinguished racially as either White Moor or Black Moor
, although it often was difficult to distinguish between the two by skin color. White Moor tribes and clans dominated government and business. The Black Moor subgroup (also called Haratines or freed slaves) remained politically and economically weaker than the White Moor subgroup. Afro-Mauritanian ethnic groups, comprising the Halpulaar, the Wolof
, and the Soninke, were concentrated in the south and in urban areas. Afro-Mauritanians were underrepresented in the military and security sectors. In October 2007 the government named a significant number of Afro‑Mauritanians to important vice governor and prefect positions.
The constitution designates Arabic as the official language and Arabic, Pulaar
, Soninke
, and Wolof
as the country's national languages. The new government reversed previous efforts at "Arabization" of the school system, encouraging instead French and Arab bilingualism. Neither Afro-Mauritanian national languages nor the local Hassaniya Arabic dialect were used as languages of instruction.
Ethnic rivalry significantly contributed to political divisions and tensions. Some political parties had readily identifiable ethnic bases, although political coalitions were increasingly important. Black Moors and Afro‑Mauritanians were underrepresented in mid- to high-level public and private sector jobs. In October police in Nouadhibou responded with tear gas when Black Moor merchants briefly rioted after a group of White Moors beat a Black Moor butcher who had allegedly insulted the wife of a White Moor naval official. The butcher was hospitalized for a few days, but police took no action against the assailants.
under certain conditions, secular laws do not.
There was no evidence of systematic discrimination by either society or government against persons with HIV/AIDS; however, taboo
s and beliefs associated with the disease caused victims in some areas to face isolation or exclusion. The stigma related to the disease and the belief that victims are guilty of violating Islamic practices contributed to underreporting of HIV infection, the incidence of which was likely significantly higher than the official figure of 1 percent.
s of their choice without authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right. Noncitizens did not have the right to serve as trade union officials unless they had worked in the country and in that trade for at least five years. The majority of the labor force was in the informal sector, with most workers engaged in subsistence agriculture
and animal husbandry
; only 25 percent were employed in regularly paid positions. Nearly 90 percent of industrial and commercial workers, however, were unionized.
To be legally recognized, a union must have the authorization of the public prosecutor, who can provisionally suspend a trade union at the request of the Ministry of the Interior if it believes that the union has not complied with the law. The government, however, has the power to decide whether to recognize a trade union.
Laws provide workers with protection against anti-union discrimination; however, national human rights groups reported that authorities did not actively investigate alleged anti-union practices in some private firms owned by wealthy citizens. Labor courts were not allowed to reinstate workers who were arbitrarily dismissed; however, there were no reported cases of union-related dismissals.
, and workers exercised this right during the year. Civil service unions were required to give one month's notice before holding a strike, and private sector unions were required to provide official notification that conciliation procedures had been exhausted before holding a strike. The government can dissolve a union for what it considered an illegal or politically motivated strike; however, no unions were disbanded during the year.
, including by children, but the law only applies to relations between employers and workers; there were credible reports that such practices occurred. In August the National Assembly passed legislation criminalizing slavery, but the law had not come into force by year's end, and there were areas where slavery‑related practices continued and the attitudes of master and slave prevailed. On December 10, the president launched a national antislavery campaign and allocated approximately $7.5 million (2 billion ouguiya) for the eradication of all forms of slavery. The labor code includes criminal penalties for human trafficking and includes increased penalties for contracting to benefit from forced labor and for exploiting forced labor as part of an organized criminal network.
At year's end, the government had not taken action on the May 2005 recommendations of the International Labor Organization to allow an independent investigation into forced labor, reinforce the Ministry of Public records and Labor, and give labor inspectors greater resources and autonomy. Slavery-related practices, typically flowing from ancestral master-slave relationships, continued in isolated areas where a barter economy existed, education levels were generally low, and there was a high demand for persons to herd livestock, tend fields, and perform other manual labor. Some individuals considered themselves either slaves or masters and were unaware that slavery had been abolished. Human rights activists reported that many persons in these slavery-like relationships refused to report their "masters" to the authorities.
In September the government secured parliamentary passage of a law imposing tougher penalties on slave holders as well as penalties on officials who fail to apply the law; however, no cases were prosecuted during the year. Human rights groups welcomed the law but continued to call for increased government efforts to publicize the law, train prosecutors and judges, and ensure enforcement of the law. Human rights groups reported that persons in slave-like relationships were persuaded by their masters to deny the relationship to activists.
Voluntary servitude also persisted, with some former slaves
and descendants of slaves continuing to work for former masters in exchange for some combination of money, lodging, food, or medical care. The reasons for the persistence of such practices varied widely among different ethnic groups; however, poverty, a barter economy, and persistent drought limited economic alternatives for many and left some former slaves and descendants of slaves vulnerable to exploitation by former masters. Adult females with children faced greater difficulties and could be compelled to remain in a condition of servitude.
There were reports that some former slaves continued to work for their former masters or others without remuneration to retain access to land they traditionally farmed. Although the law provides for distribution of land to the landless, including to former slaves, this law has been enforced in only a few cases. Deeply embedded psychological and tribal bonds also made it difficult for many individuals who had generations of forebears who were slaves to break bonds with former masters or tribes. Some persons continued to link themselves to former masters because they believed their slave status had been religiously ordained and they feared religious sanction if that bond were broken.
in the informal sector was a significant problem, particularly within poorer inner-city areas. The law states that employed children between the ages of 14 and 16 should receive 70 percent of the minimum wage and that those between the ages of 17 and 18 should receive 90 percent of the minimum wage.
The Ministry of Justice, working with UNICEF, worked to repatriate Mauritanian children who had been sent to work as camel jockeys in the United Arab Emirates. The ministry formally arranged the repatriation of 12 youths under the program and provided family counseling for the repatriated youths plus additional youth who had previously worked as camel jockeys.
Young rural children were commonly employed in herding
, cultivation, fishing
, and other labor to support their families. Young children in urban areas often drove donkey
carts and delivered water and building materials. Some marabouts provided their talibes with insufficient food and shelter and forced them to beg for over 12 hours a day. In keeping with longstanding tradition, many children served apprenticeships in small industries and in the informal sector. Reporting by some NGOs, including SOS‑Esclaves, strongly stated that domestic employment, often unpaid, of girls as young as seven in wealthier homes was a growing problem. There was no child labor in the modern industrial sector.
Several government offices have responsibility for enforcing child labor laws, including the ministries of labor; justice; women's, children's, and family affairs; and the Commission for Food Security and Social Protection. There was a labor inspectorate with the authority to refer violations to judicial authorities, but the eight regional inspectors and 30 inspector/controllers lacked the basic resources, such as transport and office equipment, needed to enforce existing child labor and other labor laws.
The standard, legal, nonagricultural workweek could not exceed either 40 hours or six days without overtime
compensation, which was paid at rates that were graduated according to the number of overtime hours worked. Domestic and certain other workers could work 56 hours per week. Employees are required to be given at least one 24‑hour period of rest per week. The Labor Directorate of the Ministry of Labor is responsible for enforcement of labor laws, but in practice inadequate funding limited the effectiveness of enforcement.
The government set health and safety standards, and the Ministry of Labor was responsible for enforcing these standards, but did so inconsistently. In principle workers could remove themselves from hazardous conditions without risking loss of employment, but in practice they could not.
With an estimated population of three million, Mauritania
Mauritania
Mauritania is a country in the Maghreb and West Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, by Western Sahara in the north, by Algeria in the northeast, by Mali in the east and southeast, and by Senegal in the southwest...
is a highly centralized Islamic republic
Islamic republic
Islamic republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, and Mauritania. Pakistan adopted the title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian...
governed by a military dictatorship
Military dictatorship
A military dictatorship is a form of government where in the political power resides with the military. It is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military....
which in 2008 overthrew President Sidi Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi, whose April 19, 2007 inauguration highlighted the country's first successful transition to democracy in its 50 years of independence. President Abdallahi replaced Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall
Ely Ould Mohamed Vall
Colonel Ely Ould Mohamed Vall is a political and military figure in Mauritania. He served as the transitional military leader of Mauritania following a coup d'état in August 2005 until 19 April 2007, when he relinquished power to an elected government....
, who had taken power in the August 2005 coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
that ended the 23-year presidency of Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya
Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya
Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya , was Prime Minister of Mauritania from 1981 to 1984 and president from 1984 to 2005. He guided Mauritania from military rule to democracy, and took a pro-Western stance in foreign affairs...
. The 2007 presidential elections were judged free and fair by international and national observers, civilian authorities were believed generally maintained effective control of the security forces.
The human rights record of Mauritania has been poor since its independence in 1960. Coming from French Colonial Rule
French West Africa
French West Africa was a federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan , French Guinea , Côte d'Ivoire , Upper Volta , Dahomey and Niger...
, the state was ethnically divided between Arabic speaking Berber
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
tribal confederations of the north and sedentary black populations of the south, many of whom were traditionally bonded communities or enslaved
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
individuals. The Mauritanian Government
Politics of Mauritania
The first fully democratic Presidential election since 1960 occurred on 11 March 2007. The election was the final transfer from military to civilian rule following the military coup in 2005. This was the first time the president was selected by ballot in the country's history...
has a history of discriminating against these Toucouleur
Toucouleur
The Toucouleurs are a Fula agricultural people who live primarily in West Africa: the north of Senegal in the Senegal River valley, Mauritania, and Mali.-History:...
s and Soninke people within its borders. One such example occurred in 1987, when the government imprisoned southerners and threw others out of the army, resulting in the Mauritania–Senegal Border War.
In governance, the nation has only ever had one successful transfer to elected leadership, which occurred 2007, and this was reversed by the military in 2008, who seized power. Thereafter, public protest
Protest
A protest is an expression of objection, by words or by actions, to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take many different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations...
s were suppressed by force, and press dissent has been outlawed. The military crackdown on the activities of a small Islamic militant population was intensified since early 2008, before the coup, and has continued with widespread arrests and detentions. As an Islamic state
Islamic State
An Islamic state is a type of government, in which the primary basis for government is Islamic religious law...
, there is no freedom of religion
Freedom of religion
Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follow any...
in Mauritania.
The Ould Cheikh Abdallahi government's human rights record improved during the return to democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
; however, there were reports of mistreatment of detainees by security forces, harsh prison conditions, impunity, prolonged pretrial detention, executive branch influence on the judiciary, and restrictions on freedom of the press
Freedom of the press
Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the freedom of communication and expression through vehicles including various electronic media and published materials...
, freedom of assembly
Freedom of assembly
Freedom of assembly, sometimes used interchangeably with the freedom of association, is the individual right to come together and collectively express, promote, pursue and defend common interests...
, and freedom of association
Freedom of association
Freedom of association is the individual right to come together with other individuals and collectively express, promote, pursue and defend common interests....
. There was a widespread public perception of governmental corruption and a lack of access to government information. Sexism
Sexism
Sexism, also known as gender discrimination or sex discrimination, is the application of the belief or attitude that there are characteristics implicit to one's gender that indirectly affect one's abilities in unrelated areas...
, female genital mutilation
Female genital cutting
Female genital mutilation , also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, is defined by the World Health Organization as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons."FGM...
(FGM), child labour, human trafficking
Human trafficking
Human trafficking is the illegal trade of human beings for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor, or a modern-day form of slavery...
, and the political marginalization of largely southern-based ethnic groups continued to be problems.
The Abdallahi government had acted to address the country's most serious human rights problems, most significantly by passing legislation criminalizing the lingering practice of slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
and initiating preparations for the repatriation of thousands of Afro‑Mauritanians living as refugees in Senegal
Senegal
Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
and Mali
Mali
Mali , officially the Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in Western Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Its size is just over 1,240,000 km² with...
following their expulsion during ethnic tensions and violence in 1989-91. Following the 6 August 2008 coup, the military government of Mauritania has faced severe international sanctions, internal unrest, and has been accused by Amnesty International
Amnesty International
Amnesty International is an international non-governmental organisation whose stated mission is "to conduct research and generate action to prevent and end grave abuses of human rights, and to demand justice for those whose rights have been violated."Following a publication of Peter Benenson's...
of practicing coordinated torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
against criminal and political detainees. Amnesty has accused the Mauritania legal system, both before and after the 2008 coup, of functioning with a complete disregard of legal procedure, fair trial, or humane imprisonment. Further, Amnesty has accused the Mauritanian government of an institutionalized and continuous use of torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
throughout its post independence history.
Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life
There were no reports that the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful killingUnlawful killing
In English law unlawful killing is a verdict that can be returned by an inquest in England and Wales when someone has been killed by one or several unknown persons. The verdict means that the killing was done without lawful excuse and in breach of criminal law. This includes murder, manslaughter,...
s in 2007.
Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Although the constitution and law prohibit such practices, there were reports that police beat and abused prisoners and detainees; however, unlike in the previous year, there were no reports of the severe forms of torture previously used. According to reports, those who lacked money or influential family or tribal ties were the most likely to be mistreated. Authorities rarely took action against those responsible for such abuse.In November a protester was shot and killed by police lacking training who responded with deadly force during a demonstration.
On June 5, a court cited poor police evidence collection procedures in acquitting Ismael Issa, an Algerian Islamist who reportedly was tortured while in custody in 2005; the court acquitted on the same basis 24 of 25 codefendants accused of "acts against the state" for their alleged ties to the terrorist Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat, now known as Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
Al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb
The Al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb, previously known as the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat is a radical Islamist militia which aims to overthrow the Algerian government and institute an Islamic state. To that end, it is currently engaged in an insurgent campaign.The group...
(AQIM).
Prison and Detention Center Conditions
Overcrowding and harsh prisonPrison
A prison is a place in which people are physically confined and, usually, deprived of a range of personal freedoms. Imprisonment or incarceration is a legal penalty that may be imposed by the state for the commission of a crime...
conditions persisted in spite of government efforts to relieve overcrowding by opening a new central prison in Nouakchott in June. Prisoners reported the theft of personal property during the transfer between facilities. The new prison, designed to house 800 prisoners, replaced the former Nouakchott prison that had a capacity of 250. At year's end approximately 650 prisoners were incarcerated in the new prison.
In March inmates at the Nouadhibou prison protested poor conditions. Guards reportedly fired warning shots into the air, but there were no injuries reported.
Serious overcrowding and inadequate sanitation
Sanitation
Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes. Hazards can be either physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause health problems are human and animal feces, solid wastes, domestic...
facilities in some prisons reportedly contributed to diseases such as tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body...
, diarrhea
Diarrhea
Diarrhea , also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having three or more loose or liquid bowel movements per day. It is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide. The loss of fluids through diarrhea can cause dehydration and...
, and dermatological ailments
Cutaneous conditions
There are many conditions of or affecting the human integumentary system—the organ system that comprises the entire surface of the body and includes skin, hair, nails, and related muscle and glands.- Diseases :...
. Medical supplies, mainly provided by an international nongovernmental organization (NGO), remained insufficient in all prisons. Budget allocations to improve prison conditions remained insufficient in all prisons. Prisoners with high-level connections and with families to bring them food, medicines, and reading material fared better than the less privileged and citizens of other countries.
Guard force management generally enforced regulations against beatings and torture; however, there continued to be credible reports of beatings and abuse in police detention centers and several prisons throughout the country.
Children of female prisoners either remained with their mothers or the Ministry of Justice gave temporary custody to other family members. The Noura Foundation, an NGO working in the women's prison, provided education and vocational training to female prisoners and partnered with the Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
charity Caritas
Caritas (charity)
Caritas Internationalis is a confederate of 164 Roman Catholic relief, development and social service organisations operating in over 200 countries and territories worldwide....
to provide education, sports, and vocational services in the juvenile detention center. Pretrial detainees in all detention facilities were frequently held with convicted prisoners as a result of overcrowding.
The government permitted prison visits by NGOs, diplomats, and international human rights observers. The International Committee of the Red Cross
International Committee of the Red Cross
The International Committee of the Red Cross is a private humanitarian institution based in Geneva, Switzerland. States parties to the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 and 2005, have given the ICRC a mandate to protect the victims of international and...
(ICRC) had access to prisons and conducted multiple prison visits in accordance with its standard modalities.
Arbitrary Arrest or Detention
The constitution and law prohibit arbitrary arrest and detention. Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that police arbitrarily arrested and detained citizens.Role of the Police and Security Apparatus
The National Police, under the Ministry of the Interior, is responsible for law enforcement and maintaining order in urban areas. The National Guard, under the Ministry of the Interior, performs security functions throughout the country in areas in which city police are not present. The gendarmerieGendarmerie
A gendarmerie or gendarmery is a military force charged with police duties among civilian populations. Members of such a force are typically called "gendarmes". The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary describes a gendarme as "a soldier who is employed on police duties" and a "gendarmery, -erie" as...
, a specialized paramilitary group under the Ministry of Defense, is responsible for maintaining civil order in and outside metropolitan areas.
The police were viewed as unprofessional and unwilling to investigate minor complaints by persons who were not well connected. The police also lacked equipment and training. Corruption was a problem. Police in some regions rearrested former criminals and demanded bribes for their release. Some indicted detainees were released before trial without explanation. The government often did not hold security officials accountable or prosecute them for abuses. During the year there were reports of investigations and prosecutions of police on human rights grounds. In July the Internal Affairs Division was involved in a malfeasance investigation, which led to the arrest of the country's INTERPOL liaison officer on drug smuggling charges.
Arrest and Detention
The law requires duly authorized arrest warrantArrest warrant
An arrest warrant is a warrant issued by and on behalf of the state, which authorizes the arrest and detention of an individual.-Canada:Arrest warrants are issued by a judge or justice of the peace under the Criminal Code of Canada....
s, but they were not commonly used. The law requires that courts review the legality of a person's detention within 48 hours of arrest; however, the police can extend the period for another 48 hours, and a prosecutor or court can detain persons for up to 15 workdays in national security cases. Only after the prosecutor submits charges does a suspect have the right to counsel
Right to counsel
Right to counsel is currently generally regarded as a constituent of the right to a fair trial, allowing for the defendant to be assisted by counsel , and if he cannot afford his own lawyer, requiring that the government should appoint one for him/her, or pay his/her legal expenses...
. Attorneys for the indigent are provided at state expense. While one article of the law provides detainees with the right to prompt judicial determination of the charges against them, an older law allows the government to detain persons for up to 30 days without a judicial determination. Unlike in the previous year, the new government generally respected the established timelines for pressing charges, with a significant drop reported in the number of detainees held without charge. There was no functional bail system.
In October the government arrested seven individuals for alleged ties to terrorist groups. Four of the seven were released without charge, and three were formally charged (one with the additional charge of possession of explosives) within the prescribed time.
One person was arrested during the year for proselytizing.
In November police shot and killed a protester in the town of Kankossa after rioters set fire to the prefect's office and residence during a demonstration over increased food and energy costs.
Human rights groups reported a reduction in the length and frequency of pretrial detention, although approximately 30 cases of extended pretrial detention reportedly remained at year's end. In previous years there were credible reports of persons remaining in pretrial detention for months or, in some cases, years. The average amount of time that pretrial detainees were held during the year was two work days for normal cases and two work weeks for cases involving matters of national security.
Amnesty
Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports of amnestyAmnesty
Amnesty is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to the positions of innocent people, without changing the laws defining the offense. It includes more than pardon, in as much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the...
being granted in 2007.
Denial of Fair Public Trial
The constitution and law provide for judicial independence, and the judiciary exercised greater independence than in the previous year, particularly in acquitting persons charged with terrorism in light of alleged police abuses in the process of evidence collection. However, the executive branch continued to exercise significant influence over the judiciary through its ability to appoint and pressure judges. In addition poorly educated and poorly trained judges who were susceptible to social, financial, and tribal pressures limited the judicial system's fairness.The government continued to work on judicial reform, including training judges, prosecutors, and police on procedures for applying laws, particularly those concerning human rights, antislavery, money laundering
Money laundering
Money laundering is the process of disguising illegal sources of money so that it looks like it came from legal sources. The methods by which money may be laundered are varied and can range in sophistication. Many regulatory and governmental authorities quote estimates each year for the amount...
, and trafficking in persons. The government also worked to professionalize judges by calling for the hiring of judges from academic circles and by training prosecutors and judges to increase judicial efficiency.
There is a single system of courts consistent with modified principles of Sharia
Sharia
Sharia law, is the moral code and religious law of Islam. Sharia is derived from two primary sources of Islamic law: the precepts set forth in the Quran, and the example set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Sunnah. Fiqh jurisprudence interprets and extends the application of sharia to...
law. Departmental, regional, and labor tribunals are the courts of first instance at the lower level. The 53 departmental tribunals, composed of a president and magistrates with traditional Islamic legal training, heard civil cases involving sums less than $37 (10,000 ouguiya) and family issues, including domestic, divorce, and inheritance cases. A total of 13 regional tribunals accepted appeals in commercial and civil matters from the departmental tribunals and heard misdemeanor cases. At the middle level, three courts of appeal, each with seven chambers (civil, commercial, administrative, and penal chambers, as well as criminal, minors, and labor courts) heard appeals from the regional courts and have original jurisdiction for felonies.
The Supreme Court, whose members are appointed by the president and subject to annual review, was nominally independent and reviewed decisions and rulings made by the courts of appeal to determine their compliance with law and procedure. Constitutional review was within the purview of a six-member constitutional council. The Supreme Court undertook an annual review to determine whether lower courts applied the law correctly and followed proper procedures. Reviews also served as a basis for evaluating the reform process and reassigning judges based on their qualifications.
Trial Procedures
The law provides for due processDue process
Due process is the legal code that the state must venerate all of the legal rights that are owed to a person under the principle. Due process balances the power of the state law of the land and thus protects individual persons from it...
. Defendants have a right to a public trial
Public trial
Public trial or open trial is a trial open to public, as opposed to the secret trial. The term should not be confused with show trial.-United States:...
, but juries
Jury
A jury is a sworn body of people convened to render an impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a penalty or judgment. Modern juries tend to be found in courts to ascertain the guilt, or lack thereof, in a crime. In Anglophone jurisdictions, the verdict may be guilty,...
are not used. All defendants, regardless of the court or their ability to pay, have the legal right to representation by counsel during the proceedings. If defendants lacked the ability to pay, the court appointed an attorney from a list prepared by the National Order of Lawyers, which provided a defense free of charge. There is a presumption of innocence
Presumption of innocence
The presumption of innocence, sometimes referred to by the Latin expression Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat, is the principle that one is considered innocent until proven guilty. Application of this principle is a legal right of the accused in a criminal trial, recognised in many...
and the right to appeal. The foregoing rights generally were observed in practice.
Shari'a provides the legal principles upon which the law and legal procedure are based; the courts did not treat women as the equals of men in all cases.
A special court hears the cases of children under the age of 18. Children who appeared before the court received more lenient sentences than adults, and extenuating circumstances received greater consideration in juvenile cases. The minimum age for children to be tried was 12. Those between the ages of 12 and 18 were tried and, if convicted, sentenced to the juvenile detention center.
Political Prisoners and Detainees
There were no reports of political prisonerPolitical prisoner
According to the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, a political prisoner is ‘someone who is in prison because they have opposed or criticized the government of their own country’....
s or detainees during 2007.
Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies
The administrative court has the competence to receive complaints of human rights violation. The court did not receive any human rights cases during the year, and there were no reports of difficulty enforcing domestic court orders in 2007.Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence
The law prohibits such actions, and the pre-coup government generally respected these prohibitions, according to Western governments.Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that the pre-coup government surveilled opposition political activities.
Freedom of Speech and Press
The constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and of the press, and the government generally respected these rights. In October 2007 the NGO Reporters without BordersReporters Without Borders
Reporters Without Borders is a France-based international non-governmental organization that advocates freedom of the press. It was founded in 1985, by Robert Ménard, Rony Brauman and the journalist Jean-Claude Guillebaud. Jean-François Julliard has served as Secretary General since 2008...
noted the country's improvements in press freedom. Prior to the August 2008 coup, individuals generally could criticize the government publicly or privately without reprisal, while the independent media were active and expressed a variety of views without restriction.
On August 16, 2007, bodyguards of the prime minister allegedly beat Radio Mauritanie reporter Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Moghdad after he attempted to bypass security checks. On August 24, Reporters Without Borders called for Minister of Justice Limam Ould Teguedi to intervene to allow a complaint to be filed against the government. The prime minister's office conducted an internal investigation that concluded with a formal apology to Ould Moghdad, who then ended his efforts to file a complaint.
The High Authority for Press and Broadcast Media, which the transitional government created in October 2006, continued to play an advisory and mediating role on issues concerning the media. For example, the Authority worked to address the Ould Moghdad incident.
NGOs and the privately owned press openly criticized the government and its leaders. Some journalists practiced self‑censorship in areas deemed sensitive, refraining from commenting on Shari'a law or directly criticizing foreign embassies.
In December 2007 the First Lady withdrew her October libel suit against a journalist who accused her of using state funds for personal use and for involvement in government contracts and concessions.
Unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that the government restricted the political opposition's ability to broadcast on government radio and television prior to the 2008 coup.
There were no developments in the case of two newspaper employees arrested in 2005 for publishing a story on a pornographic
Pornography
Pornography or porn is the explicit portrayal of sexual subject matter for the purposes of sexual arousal and erotic satisfaction.Pornography may use any of a variety of media, ranging from books, magazines, postcards, photos, sculpture, drawing, painting, animation, sound recording, film, video,...
film reportedly made in Nouakchott's central prison. At year's end, the case had yet to go to trial, and the accused remained free.
Internet Freedom
There were no government restrictions on access to the InternetInternet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
or reports that the government monitored email
Email
Electronic mail, commonly known as email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both be online at the...
or Internet chat room
Chat room
The term chat room, or chatroom, is primarily used by mass media to describe any form of synchronous conferencing, occasionally even asynchronous conferencing...
s in 2010. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e-mail. There is a law prohibiting child pornography with penalties of two months to one year imprisonment and a 160,000 to 300,000 ouguiya ($550 to $1,034) fine.
Internet access was available in urban areas throughout the country, with home access common among the affluent and internet café
Internet cafe
An Internet café or cybercafé is a place which provides internet access to the public, usually for a fee. These businesses usually provide snacks and drinks, hence the café in the name...
s serving the remainder of the population. According to International Telecommunication Union statistics for 2009, approximately 2.28 percent of the country's inhabitants used the Internet.
Between 16 March and 19 March 2009 and again on 25 June 2009 the news Web site Taqadoumy was blocked. On 26 February 2010, Hanevy Ould Dehah, director of Taqadoumy, received a presidential pardon after being detained since December 2009 despite having served his sentence for crimes against Islam and paying all imposed fines and legal fees. Dehah, who was originally arrested in June 2009 on charges of defamation of presidential candidate Ibrahima Sarr for publishing an article stating that Sarr bought a house with campaign money from General Aziz. Dehah, was sentenced in August 2009 to six months in prison and fined 30,000 ouguiya ($111) for committing acts contrary to Islam and decency. The sentencing judge accused Dehah of creating a space allowing individuals to express anti-Islamic and indecent views, based on a female reader's comments made on the Taqadoumy site calling for increased sexual freedom.
Academic Freedom and Cultural Events
There were no government restrictions on academic freedom or cultural events in 2007.Freedom of Assembly
The law provides for freedom of assemblyFreedom of assembly
Freedom of assembly, sometimes used interchangeably with the freedom of association, is the individual right to come together and collectively express, promote, pursue and defend common interests...
, and the government generally respected this right. The law requires that organizers apply to the local prefect ("hakem") for permission to hold large meetings or assemblies, and permission was generally granted.
In September 2007 a meeting of the national NGO Cyber Forum was blocked by the minister in charge of relations with parliament and civil society, reportedly because he had not been invited. The minister claimed to have ordered police to block access to the organization's headquarters because a faction of the NGO had complained it was being excluded from the meeting.
In October and November 2007 police forcibly dispersed multiple unsanctioned demonstrations against the perceived high cost of living when they posed a threat to property or public safety. One protestor was fatally wounded in the town of Kankossa, where the prefect's home and office were set on fire
Arson
Arson is the crime of intentionally or maliciously setting fire to structures or wildland areas. It may be distinguished from other causes such as spontaneous combustion and natural wildfires...
.
Freedom of Association
The law provides for freedom of association, and the pre-coup government generally respected this right; however, all political parties must register with the Ministry of the Interior, and the government continued to use laws that prohibit formation of racially or religious-based organizations. The government, however, authorized the establishment of an Islamist political party during the year, and the application of a second Islamic party was under review at year's end in 2007.During that year the government recognized several human rights organizations, including those affiliated with Afro-Mauritanian refugees.
The government recognized 18 new political parties
Political party
A political party is a political organization that typically seeks to influence government policy, usually by nominating their own candidates and trying to seat them in political office. Parties participate in electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions...
during 2007, bringing to 53 the number of registered political parties. Political parties and numerous NGOs generally functioned openly, issued public statements, and chose their own leadership.
Freedom of Religion
The constitution establishes the country as an Islamic republic and decrees that Islam is the religion of its citizens and the state. The government limited freedom of religionFreedom of religion
Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follow any...
. The government did not register religious groups. NGOs, including humanitarian and development NGOs affiliated with religious groups, had to register with the Ministry of the Interior.
The government continued to prohibit proselytizing and the distribution of any material that "is against Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
or contradicts or otherwise threatens Islam." Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
s were neither printed nor publicly sold in the country; however, the possession of bibles and other Christian
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
religious materials in private homes was not illegal, and bibles and other religious publications were available among the small Christian community.
In September 2007 Nouakchott
Nouakchott
-Government:The town was first divided into districts in 1973. First it was divided into four. From 1986, the city has been split into nine districts.* Arafat* Dar Naim* El Mina* Ksar* Riad* Sebkha* Tevragh-Zeina* Teyarett* Toujounine...
police arrested a Christian convert on charges of proselytizing. After several days' detention, he was released with a verbal warning.
There were no developments in the closure of churches led by six West African Protestant pastors whom the government briefly detained in May 2006.
Societal Abuses and Discrimination
A very small number of expatriates practiced JudaismJudaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
. There were no reports of anti-Semitic acts.
Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons
The law provides for freedom of movementFreedom of movement
Freedom of movement, mobility rights or the right to travel is a human right concept that the constitutions of numerous states respect...
, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and while the government generally respected these rights, persons lacking identity cards could not travel freely in some regions. Lack of identity documents particularly affected Afro-Mauritanians in the southern provinces, many of whom were former refugees in Senegal who had independently decided to return to Mauritania. The government set up roadblocks where gendarmes, police, or customs officials checked the papers of travelers and often demanded bribes. During the year the government generally maintained fewer roadblocks and reduced the time taken in questioning and conducting vehicle searches; however, there were periodic reports of more stringent searches in the southern border areas and in the eastern regions where the terrorist group AQIM was believed to be active. The government launched extensive border security operations following the December 24 AQIM killings of four French tourists near Aleg.
The law does not prohibit forced exile
Exile
Exile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return...
, but there were no reports that the government used it.
The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimated that between 25,000 and 34,000 Mauritanian refugee
Refugee
A refugee is a person who outside her country of origin or habitual residence because she has suffered persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or because she is a member of a persecuted 'social group'. Such a person may be referred to as an 'asylum seeker' until...
s from the 1989-91 crisis remained in Senegal, and was undertaking a repatriation program with the new Abdallahi government and the governments of Senegal and Mali. In November the government held a three-day national dialogue concerning the return of refugees and, in December, established an interagency office to coordinate the returns scheduled to begin in 2008.
Protection of Refugees
The law does not provide for the granting of asylumRight of asylum
Right of asylum is an ancient juridical notion, under which a person persecuted for political opinions or religious beliefs in his or her own country may be protected by another sovereign authority, a foreign country, or church sanctuaries...
or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
The United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees is an international convention that defines who is a refugee, and sets out the rights of individuals who are granted asylum and the responsibilities of nations that grant asylum. The Convention also sets out which people do not...
or its 1967 protocol, or the 1967 African Union Convention on the Status of Refugees, but the former government established a system for providing such protection. In practice the government provided protection against "refoulement," the return of persons to a country where there is reason to believe they feared persecution, and granted refugee status or asylum.
The government continued to provide temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol and during the year provided it to approximately 800 persons.
The government cooperated with the UNHCR and other humanitarian organizations in assisting refugees or asylum seekers. The former government accepted the UNHCR's registration of approximately 800 asylum seekers, mostly from Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone , officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of and has an estimated population between 5.4 and 6.4...
and Liberia
Liberia
Liberia , officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Sierra Leone on the west, Guinea on the north and Côte d'Ivoire on the east. Liberia's coastline is composed of mostly mangrove forests while the more sparsely populated inland consists of forests that open...
, and the government worked with the UNHCR during the year to provide continued assistance for these individuals.
During the year the government assisted the UNHCR, the European Commission
European Commission
The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....
, and the government of Spain in returning migrants attempting to enter the Canary Islands by sea to their countries of origin. The Spanish Technical Corporation operated a migrant reception center in Nouadhibou to process returned migrants and to ensure that they received needed nutritional and medical care. The government gave the UNHCR access to returned migrants to determine if they were eligible for refugee status. In light of freedom of movement agreements with members of the Economic Community of West African States, the government allowed West African migrants to remain in the northern region, deporting only those found in the act of attempting illegal travel to the Canary Islands.
Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government
The constitution and law provide citizens the right to change their government, and during the year citizens enjoyed a peaceful transition to democratically elected government for the first time in the country's history. Two rounds of presidential electionElection
An election is a formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy operates since the 17th century. Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the...
s culminated in the election of President Sidi Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi in March. The elections were judged by national and international observers to be generally free and fair. Despite some charges that the previous military transition government provided tacit support to the Abdallahi campaign, second-round opponent Ahmed Ould Dadda accepted the results of the election and assumed a cabinet-level position as the leader of the opposition.
Elections and Political Participation
To complete the process initiated by the transitional government of transition to a civilian-led government, citizens voted on March 11 to select a president from among 20 candidates, including 12 independents. When no candidate won a majority in the first round, voters returned to the polls on March 25 to choose between independent candidate Mohamed Ould Cheikh Abdallahi and president of the Rally of Democratic Forces party Ahmed Ould Daddah. Abdallahi won the second round with 53 percent of the votes. Former central bank governor and third‑place presidential vote-getter Zein Ould Zeidane was named prime minister.The 95-person National Assembly included representatives from 12 of the 25 parties that contested the 2006 legislative elections, as well as 41 independents.
In October opposition parties protested President Abdallahi's decision to support the establishment of a new political party uniting the legislative majority. Opposition and civil society leaders feared the new party would revert to the "party of the state" politics of the past by drawing on state resources and depriving other parties of equal standing. Opposition parties criticized the role of the secretary general of the presidency, a cabinet-rank position, as the primary coordinator of the new party.
Following a July 2006 decree requiring all political parties to reserve 20 percent of positions on their legislative and municipal candidate lists for women, female candidates were elected to approximately that percentage of seats in the National Assembly. The government includes two female ministers, and in September the government appointed two female governors (walis) for the first time in the country's history. In October the government named several female vice governors and prefects.
The new government increased the number of Afro-Mauritanians and Black Moor
Black Moor
The black moor is a telescope-eyed variety of fancy goldfish that has a characteristic pair of protruding eyes. It is also referred to as popeye, telescope, kuro demekin in Japan and dragon-eye in China.-Description:...
s in key government positions, although they remained underrepresented as a percentage of population. Of the 30 cabinet members, there were three Black Moors and three Afro‑Mauritanians. Two of the 13 governors were Black Moors, and two were Afro-Mauritanian. Of the 53 prefects (hakems), there were three Black Moors and 11 Afro‑Mauritanians.
Government Corruption and Transparency
Corrupt practices were widely believed to exist at all levels of government, although the government was seen as less corrupt than its predecessor. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that corruption was a serious problem. Government officials reportedly received frequent favors from authorities, such as unauthorized exemption from taxes, special grants of land, and favorable treatment during bidding on government projects. Corruption was most pervasive in government procurement, bank loans, fishing license distribution, land distribution, and tax payments.In an effort to curb high-level corruption, the government introduced an annual requirement for senior officials, including the president, to publicly declare their personal assets, although critics accused some officials of hiding assets in the names of family members. In December the government launched a nationwide anticorruption information campaign and established a Commission for Financial Transparency in Public Affairs to oversee corruption cases and to be the repository for the declarations. The nine-member commission is headed by the presidents of the Supreme Court, accounts court, and High Islamic Council.
Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights
A number of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials were somewhat cooperative and responsive to their views.The government cooperated with international governmental organizations on various issues, including prison conditions and refugee services, and permitted visits by the ICRC.
Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons
The constitution and law provide for equality for all citizens regardless of race, national origin, sex, or social status, and prohibit racial or ethnic propaganda; however, the government often favored individuals on the basis of racial and tribal affiliation, social status, and political ties.Women
RapeRape
Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or with a person who is incapable of valid consent. The...
, including spousal rape, is illegal; however, the government did not enforce the law effectively, and NGOs reported that the incidence of unreported rape was high. In August 2007 the Nouakchott
Nouakchott
-Government:The town was first divided into districts in 1973. First it was divided into four. From 1986, the city has been split into nine districts.* Arafat* Dar Naim* El Mina* Ksar* Riad* Sebkha* Tevragh-Zeina* Teyarett* Toujounine...
Criminal Court convicted seven rapists and sentenced them to five to 15 years of hard labor. Several cases were reported, however, that wealthy rape suspects avoided prosecution or, if prosecuted, prison time.
The trial for the 2005 alleged rape of M'barka, who was forced into domestic servitude and charged with sexual misconduct for being pregnant and unwed after she was allegedly raped by a member of the household, had not begun by year's end.
Domestic abuse and violence are illegal; however, the government did not always enforce the law effectively. Human rights monitors and lawyers reported few cases of domestic violence, which was believed to be underreported due to the stigma of victimization. Penalties included imprisonment, but convictions were very rare. The police and judiciary occasionally intervened in domestic abuse cases, but women in rural areas rarely sought legal redress, relying instead upon family and ethnic group members to resolve domestic disputes.
Although prostitution is illegal, NGOs indicated that it was a growing problem in some urban areas, particularly among Afro‑Mauritanian and Black Moor
Black Moor
The black moor is a telescope-eyed variety of fancy goldfish that has a characteristic pair of protruding eyes. It is also referred to as popeye, telescope, kuro demekin in Japan and dragon-eye in China.-Description:...
women. In Nouakchott and Nouadhibou
Nouadhibou
Nouadhibou is the second largest city in Mauritania and serves as a major commercial centre. The city itself has about 75,000 inhabitants expanding to over 90,000 in the larger metropolitan area. It is situated on a 40-mile peninsula or headland called Ras Nouadhibou, Cap Blanc, or Cabo Blanco, of...
, there were reports that Chinese women were trafficked
Human trafficking
Human trafficking is the illegal trade of human beings for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor, or a modern-day form of slavery...
for sexual exploitation in brothels catering to foreigners, although there were no known cases of women seeking assistance.
Women have legal rights to property and child custody, and these rights were recognized among the more modern and urbanized population. By local tradition, a woman's first marriage
Marriage
Marriage is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged in a variety of ways, depending on the culture or subculture in which it is found...
requires parental consent. In accordance with Shari'a as applied in the country, marriage and divorce
Divorce
Divorce is the final termination of a marital union, canceling the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage and dissolving the bonds of matrimony between the parties...
do not require the woman's consent, polygyny
Polygyny
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which a man has two or more wives at the same time. In countries where the practice is illegal, the man is referred to as a bigamist or a polygamist...
is allowed, and a woman does not have the right to refuse her husband's wish to marry additional women. In practice polygyny was very rare among Moors but was common among other ethnic groups. It was common in Moor society for a woman to obtain at the time of marriage a contractual agreement stipulating that her husband must agree to end their marriage if he chooses an additional wife. Arranged marriages were increasingly rare, particularly among the Moor population. Women frequently initiated the termination of a marriage, which most often was done by repudiation of husband or wife rather than formal divorce.
Women still faced legal discrimination. The testimony of two women was necessary to equal that of one man. The courts grant only half the amount of an indemnity
Indemnity
An indemnity is a sum paid by A to B by way of compensation for a particular loss suffered by B. The indemnitor may or may not be responsible for the loss suffered by the indemnitee...
to the family of a woman who has been killed that they award for a man's death. Formulas applied to property distribution varied widely from case to case and court to court. In addition the validity of and right to establish prenuptial agreements was not always respected. The personal status code, which was published and assumed force of law in August 2001, provides a framework for the consistent application of secular law and Shari'a-based family law.
Women did not face legal discrimination in areas not addressed specifically by Shari'a. The law provides that men and women should receive equal pay for equal work. While not applied universally, the two largest employers—the civil service and the state mining company—observed this law. In the modern wage sector, women also received family benefits, including three months of maternity leave.
The government sought to open new employment opportunities for women in sectors that were traditionally filled by men, such as health care, communications, police, and customs services. All announcements for government jobs encouraged female applicants. Women became more involved in the fishing industry
Fishing industry
The fishing industry includes any industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling fish or fish products....
and established several women's fishing cooperatives.
The Secretariat for Women's Affairs worked with many NGOs and cooperatives to improve the status of women. The government, women's groups, and national and international NGOs organized meetings, seminars, and workshops throughout the year to publicize women's rights.
Children
The law makes provision for children's welfare, and there were government programs to care for abandoned childrenChild abandonment
Child abandonment is the practice of relinquishing interests and claims over one's offspring with the intent of never again resuming or reasserting them. Causes include many social and cultural factors as well as mental illness. An abandoned child is called a foundling .-Causes:Poverty is often a...
; however, inadequate funding hampered these programs.
Education
School attendance is mandatory for six years, but the government was not able to provide universal access to primary educationPrimary education
A primary school is an institution in which children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational,...
. The completion rate for primary school remained below 60 percent, and most students—particularly those in rural and semiurban areas—did not advance beyond primary school. Education was free through university
University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
level, although many families were unable to afford school supplies. Classes were fully integrated, including boys and girls from all social and ethnic groups. Almost all children, regardless of gender or ethnic group, attended Koranic school between the ages of five and seven and gained at least rudimentary skills in reading and writing Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
.
Childhood health
Boys and girls have equal access to state-provided medical care. The government relied on foreign donors in such areas as child immunization.Female genital mutilation
Female genital cuttingFemale genital cutting
Female genital mutilation , also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, is defined by the World Health Organization as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons."FGM...
(FGM) was practiced among all ethnic groups and most often on young girls, often on the seventh day after birth and almost always before the age of six months. There is no law explicitly prohibiting FGM; however, there is a law that "prohibits acts that could harm children," and some legal scholars believed this could be interpreted to outlaw FGM. According to the most recent internationally sponsored study (2001), three-fourths of all women between the ages of 15 and 49 had been subjected to FGM. National human rights organizations estimated the actual incidence rate to be even higher. Local experts agreed that the least severe form of excision was practiced and not infibulation
Infibulation
Infibulation is the surgical modification or mutilation of the genitals in males and females, particularly the foreskin, labia minora and labia majora...
, the most severe form. The practice of FGM has decreased in the modern urban sector. In September the government launched a national strategy against FGM; however, women's rights organizations criticized the government for not coordinating with civil society.
The government and international NGOs continued to coordinate anti-FGM efforts. These efforts focused on eradicating the practice in hospitals, discouraging midwives from practicing FGM, and educating populations. The High Islamic Council of Mauritania, the Islamic Scholar Association, and the National Forum for Women's Rights continued to emphasize that FGM carried serious health risks and was not a religious requirement. Government hospitals and licensed medical practitioners were barred from performing FGM, and several government agencies worked to prevent practitioners from continuing this custom. According to several women's rights
Women's rights
Women's rights are entitlements and freedoms claimed for women and girls of all ages in many societies.In some places these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behaviour, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed...
experts, the campaign against FGM appeared to be changing attitudes. In October 2007 the National Assembly of Mauritania
National Assembly of Mauritania
The Parliament has two chambers. The National Assembly has 81 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies. From 1961-1978, the only legal party was the Parti du Peuple Mauritanien . In the 1990s, a multiparty system was introduced in Mauritania...
began a series of provincial meetings, supported by UNICEF, focusing on FGM.
"Fattening"
Traditional forms of mistreatment of girls continue, mostly in isolated rural communities, but these practices appear to be declining. One such custom is the forced feeding of adolescent girls ("gavage" or "leblouhLeblouh
Leblouh or gavage is the practice of force-feeding young women, including girls as young as five, in Mauritania, where obesity was traditionally regarded as desirable. Especially prevalent in rural areas, and having its roots in Berber tradition, leblouh is practiced to increase chances of marriage...
") prior to marriage, which is practiced only among White Moor tribal groups. Increased government and civil society attention to the problem appeared to have led to a greater awareness of the health risks associated with gavage, countering traditional views encouraging female obesity
Obesity
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems...
.
Childhood homlessness
Local NGOs estimated that there were 400 street children in 2007, largely as a result of poverty and the urbanization of formerly nomadic families. The government and at least one NGO worked to assist families with street children and to encourage their school attendance.Trafficking in Persons
The law prohibits all forms of human traffickingHuman trafficking
Human trafficking is the illegal trade of human beings for the purposes of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor, or a modern-day form of slavery...
; however, there were reports that persons were trafficked to, from, and within the country. The government did not prosecute or sentence anyone for trafficking during 2007.
The country was a source and destination for men, women, and children trafficked for forced labor. Numerous NGO reports suggested that forced labor took several forms. Slavery
Slavery in Mauritania
Slavery in Mauritania is an entrenched phenomenon the national government has repeatedly tried to abolish, banning the practice in 1905, 1981, and August 2007...
-related practices, and possibly slavery itself, persisted in isolated areas where a barter economy still prevailed. Several reports stated that young girls from remote regions, and possibly from western Mali, worked as unpaid housemaids in some wealthy urban homes. An unknown number of young boys ("talibes"), nearly all from Pulaar
Pulaar
Pulaar is a Fula language spoken primarily as a first language by Fula people and Tukolor in the Senegal River valley area traditionally known as Futa Tooro, and further south and east...
tribes, begged in the streets as part of a "work‑study" arrangement with "marabouts," or religious teachers, in exchange for receiving religious instruction. There were reliable reports that a small number of marabouts forced their talibes to beg for over 12 hours a day and provided them with insufficient food and shelter.
The government continued a program to reduce the number of talibes and partnered with several NGOs to provide needy talibes with basic medical and nutritional care. However, government assistance and protection services for trafficking victims remained limited, with most resources going towards prevention, in the form of training for police, gendarmes, and legal officials to better identify, investigate, and convict traffickers. Human rights organizations criticized the special police unit established to protect the talibes for doing little to enforce laws.
The newly formed Commissariat for Social Protection and Food Security was responsible for addressing trafficking, but the office was inadequately staffed. During the year the government did not identify any trafficking victims.
Persons with Disabilities
The law prohibits discriminationDiscrimination
Discrimination is the prejudicial treatment of an individual based on their membership in a certain group or category. It involves the actual behaviors towards groups such as excluding or restricting members of one group from opportunities that are available to another group. The term began to be...
against persons with disabilities in education, employment, or the provision of other state services, and there were no reports of governmental or societal discrimination against persons with disabilities. The government did not mandate preference in employment or education or public accessibility for persons with disabilities, although it did provide some rehabilitation and other assistance for such persons. In October 2006 the government passed a law to increase protections and benefits for persons with disabilities.
National/Racial/Ethnic Minorities
Racial and ethnic minority groupMinority group
A minority is a sociological group within a demographic. The demographic could be based on many factors from ethnicity, gender, wealth, power, etc. The term extends to numerous situations, and civilizations within history, despite the misnomer of minorities associated with a numerical statistic...
s faced governmental discrimination. The inconsistent issuance of national identification cards, which were required for voting, effectively disenfranchised numerous members of southern minority groups. Racial and cultural tension and discrimination occurred between Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
and Afro‑Mauritanians. The Moors were divided among numerous ethno‑linguistic groups and further distinguished racially as either White Moor or Black Moor
Black Moor
The black moor is a telescope-eyed variety of fancy goldfish that has a characteristic pair of protruding eyes. It is also referred to as popeye, telescope, kuro demekin in Japan and dragon-eye in China.-Description:...
, although it often was difficult to distinguish between the two by skin color. White Moor tribes and clans dominated government and business. The Black Moor subgroup (also called Haratines or freed slaves) remained politically and economically weaker than the White Moor subgroup. Afro-Mauritanian ethnic groups, comprising the Halpulaar, the Wolof
Wolof people
The Wolof are an ethnic group found in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania.In Senegal, the Wolof form an ethnic plurality with about 43.3% of the population are Wolofs...
, and the Soninke, were concentrated in the south and in urban areas. Afro-Mauritanians were underrepresented in the military and security sectors. In October 2007 the government named a significant number of Afro‑Mauritanians to important vice governor and prefect positions.
The constitution designates Arabic as the official language and Arabic, Pulaar
Pulaar
Pulaar is a Fula language spoken primarily as a first language by Fula people and Tukolor in the Senegal River valley area traditionally known as Futa Tooro, and further south and east...
, Soninke
Soninke language
The Soninke language is a Mande language spoken by the Soninke people of West Africa. The language has an estimated 1,096,795 speakers, primarily located in Mali, and also in Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Mauritania, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Ghana...
, and Wolof
Wolof language
Wolof is a language spoken in Senegal, The Gambia, and Mauritania, and is the native language of the Wolof people. Like the neighbouring languages Serer and Fula, it belongs to the Atlantic branch of the Niger–Congo language family...
as the country's national languages. The new government reversed previous efforts at "Arabization" of the school system, encouraging instead French and Arab bilingualism. Neither Afro-Mauritanian national languages nor the local Hassaniya Arabic dialect were used as languages of instruction.
Ethnic rivalry significantly contributed to political divisions and tensions. Some political parties had readily identifiable ethnic bases, although political coalitions were increasingly important. Black Moors and Afro‑Mauritanians were underrepresented in mid- to high-level public and private sector jobs. In October police in Nouadhibou responded with tear gas when Black Moor merchants briefly rioted after a group of White Moors beat a Black Moor butcher who had allegedly insulted the wife of a White Moor naval official. The butcher was hospitalized for a few days, but police took no action against the assailants.
Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination
There was no evidence of either societal violence or systematic government discrimination based on sexual orientation. Although Shari'a outlaws homosexualityHomosexuality
Homosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions" primarily or exclusively to people of the same...
under certain conditions, secular laws do not.
There was no evidence of systematic discrimination by either society or government against persons with HIV/AIDS; however, taboo
Taboo
A taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and or forbidden based on moral judgment, religious beliefs and or scientific consensus. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society...
s and beliefs associated with the disease caused victims in some areas to face isolation or exclusion. The stigma related to the disease and the belief that victims are guilty of violating Islamic practices contributed to underreporting of HIV infection, the incidence of which was likely significantly higher than the official figure of 1 percent.
The Right of Association
The law allows workers—except for members of the military, police, and judiciary—to form and join trade unionTrade union
A trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...
s of their choice without authorization or excessive requirements, and workers exercised this right. Noncitizens did not have the right to serve as trade union officials unless they had worked in the country and in that trade for at least five years. The majority of the labor force was in the informal sector, with most workers engaged in subsistence agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
and animal husbandry
Animal husbandry
Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.- History :Animal husbandry has been practiced for thousands of years, since the first domestication of animals....
; only 25 percent were employed in regularly paid positions. Nearly 90 percent of industrial and commercial workers, however, were unionized.
To be legally recognized, a union must have the authorization of the public prosecutor, who can provisionally suspend a trade union at the request of the Ministry of the Interior if it believes that the union has not complied with the law. The government, however, has the power to decide whether to recognize a trade union.
Laws provide workers with protection against anti-union discrimination; however, national human rights groups reported that authorities did not actively investigate alleged anti-union practices in some private firms owned by wealthy citizens. Labor courts were not allowed to reinstate workers who were arbitrarily dismissed; however, there were no reported cases of union-related dismissals.
The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively
The law provides that unions may organize workers freely without government or employer interference, and workers exercised this right in practice. The law provides workers, except for executive and managerial staff, with the right to strikeStrike action
Strike action, also called labour strike, on strike, greve , or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became...
, and workers exercised this right during the year. Civil service unions were required to give one month's notice before holding a strike, and private sector unions were required to provide official notification that conciliation procedures had been exhausted before holding a strike. The government can dissolve a union for what it considered an illegal or politically motivated strike; however, no unions were disbanded during the year.
Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor
The law prohibits forced or compulsory laborUnfree labour
Unfree labour includes all forms of slavery as well as all other related institutions .-Payment for unfree labour:If payment occurs, it may be in one or more of the following forms:...
, including by children, but the law only applies to relations between employers and workers; there were credible reports that such practices occurred. In August the National Assembly passed legislation criminalizing slavery, but the law had not come into force by year's end, and there were areas where slavery‑related practices continued and the attitudes of master and slave prevailed. On December 10, the president launched a national antislavery campaign and allocated approximately $7.5 million (2 billion ouguiya) for the eradication of all forms of slavery. The labor code includes criminal penalties for human trafficking and includes increased penalties for contracting to benefit from forced labor and for exploiting forced labor as part of an organized criminal network.
At year's end, the government had not taken action on the May 2005 recommendations of the International Labor Organization to allow an independent investigation into forced labor, reinforce the Ministry of Public records and Labor, and give labor inspectors greater resources and autonomy. Slavery-related practices, typically flowing from ancestral master-slave relationships, continued in isolated areas where a barter economy existed, education levels were generally low, and there was a high demand for persons to herd livestock, tend fields, and perform other manual labor. Some individuals considered themselves either slaves or masters and were unaware that slavery had been abolished. Human rights activists reported that many persons in these slavery-like relationships refused to report their "masters" to the authorities.
In September the government secured parliamentary passage of a law imposing tougher penalties on slave holders as well as penalties on officials who fail to apply the law; however, no cases were prosecuted during the year. Human rights groups welcomed the law but continued to call for increased government efforts to publicize the law, train prosecutors and judges, and ensure enforcement of the law. Human rights groups reported that persons in slave-like relationships were persuaded by their masters to deny the relationship to activists.
Voluntary servitude also persisted, with some former slaves
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
and descendants of slaves continuing to work for former masters in exchange for some combination of money, lodging, food, or medical care. The reasons for the persistence of such practices varied widely among different ethnic groups; however, poverty, a barter economy, and persistent drought limited economic alternatives for many and left some former slaves and descendants of slaves vulnerable to exploitation by former masters. Adult females with children faced greater difficulties and could be compelled to remain in a condition of servitude.
There were reports that some former slaves continued to work for their former masters or others without remuneration to retain access to land they traditionally farmed. Although the law provides for distribution of land to the landless, including to former slaves, this law has been enforced in only a few cases. Deeply embedded psychological and tribal bonds also made it difficult for many individuals who had generations of forebears who were slaves to break bonds with former masters or tribes. Some persons continued to link themselves to former masters because they believed their slave status had been religiously ordained and they feared religious sanction if that bond were broken.
Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment
The law provides that children cannot be employed before the age of 14 in the nonagricultural sector or under age 13 in the agricultural sector unless the minister of labor grants an exception due to local circumstances; however, child laborChild labor
Child labour refers to the employment of children at regular and sustained labour. This practice is considered exploitative by many international organizations and is illegal in many countries...
in the informal sector was a significant problem, particularly within poorer inner-city areas. The law states that employed children between the ages of 14 and 16 should receive 70 percent of the minimum wage and that those between the ages of 17 and 18 should receive 90 percent of the minimum wage.
The Ministry of Justice, working with UNICEF, worked to repatriate Mauritanian children who had been sent to work as camel jockeys in the United Arab Emirates. The ministry formally arranged the repatriation of 12 youths under the program and provided family counseling for the repatriated youths plus additional youth who had previously worked as camel jockeys.
Young rural children were commonly employed in herding
Herding
Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group , maintaining the group and moving the group from place to place—or any combination of those. While the layperson uses the term "herding", most individuals involved in the process term it mustering, "working stock" or...
, cultivation, fishing
Fishing
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch wild fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping....
, and other labor to support their families. Young children in urban areas often drove donkey
Donkey
The donkey or ass, Equus africanus asinus, is a domesticated member of the Equidae or horse family. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African Wild Ass, E...
carts and delivered water and building materials. Some marabouts provided their talibes with insufficient food and shelter and forced them to beg for over 12 hours a day. In keeping with longstanding tradition, many children served apprenticeships in small industries and in the informal sector. Reporting by some NGOs, including SOS‑Esclaves, strongly stated that domestic employment, often unpaid, of girls as young as seven in wealthier homes was a growing problem. There was no child labor in the modern industrial sector.
Several government offices have responsibility for enforcing child labor laws, including the ministries of labor; justice; women's, children's, and family affairs; and the Commission for Food Security and Social Protection. There was a labor inspectorate with the authority to refer violations to judicial authorities, but the eight regional inspectors and 30 inspector/controllers lacked the basic resources, such as transport and office equipment, needed to enforce existing child labor and other labor laws.
Acceptable Conditions of Work
The nationally mandated minimum monthly wage for adults, which was not enforced, was $77 (21,000 ouguiya), which did not provide a decent standard of living for a worker and family.The standard, legal, nonagricultural workweek could not exceed either 40 hours or six days without overtime
Overtime
Overtime is the amount of time someone works beyond normal working hours. Normal hours may be determined in several ways:*by custom ,*by practices of a given trade or profession,*by legislation,...
compensation, which was paid at rates that were graduated according to the number of overtime hours worked. Domestic and certain other workers could work 56 hours per week. Employees are required to be given at least one 24‑hour period of rest per week. The Labor Directorate of the Ministry of Labor is responsible for enforcement of labor laws, but in practice inadequate funding limited the effectiveness of enforcement.
The government set health and safety standards, and the Ministry of Labor was responsible for enforcing these standards, but did so inconsistently. In principle workers could remove themselves from hazardous conditions without risking loss of employment, but in practice they could not.