Indian martial arts
Encyclopedia
The Indian subcontinent
is home to a variety of fighting styles
. In Sanskrit
they may be collectively referred to as or . The former is a compound of the words (sword, weapon) and (learning), meaning "knowledge of the sword" or "knowledge of weaponry". The latter term derives from the words for bow () and knowledge (), literally the "science of archery" in Puranic
literature, later applied to martial arts in general The Vishnu Purana
text describes dhanurveda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of "applied knowledge" or upaveda.
In Tamil
, they are either known under the umbrella of களரிக்கலை kalarikalai, meaning 'the art of the battleground', or தற்க்காப்புக்கலை tarkappukalai, meaning 'the art of self defence'.
contain accounts of combat, both armed and bare-handed. The Mahabharata
describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna
and Karna
using bows, swords, trees, rocks and fists. Another unarmed battle in the Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts. Krishna Maharaja, whose battlefield exploits are alluded to in the Mahabharata, is credited with developing the sixteen principles of śastravidyā.
Many of the popular sports mentioned in the Vedas
and the epics have their origins in military training, such as wrestling (maladvandva), chariot-racing (rathachalan), horse-riding (ashvarohana), boxing (musti yuddha) and archery (dhanurvidya). Competitions were held not just as a contest of the players' prowess but also as a means of finding a bridegroom. Arjuna
, Rama
and Siddhartha Gautama all won their consorts in such tournaments.
In the 3rd century, elements from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were incorporated into martial arts. A number of Indian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga
, dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in kalari payat can be applied to dance and kathakali
dancers who knew martial arts
were believed to be markedly better than the other performers. Until recent decades, chhau was practiced only by martial artists. Some traditional India
n dance schools still incorporate kalari payat as part of their exercise regimen.
Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Tamil Sangam literature
of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The Akananuru
and Purananuru
describe the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam
in the Sangam era. The word kalari
appears in the Puram (verses 225, 237, 245, 356) and Akam (verses 34, 231, 293) to describe both a battlefield and combat arena. The word kalari tatt denoted a martial feat, while kalari kozhai meant a coward in war. Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training in target practice and horse riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of the period including the spear (vel), sword (val), shield (kedaham), and bow and arrow (vil ambu). The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to kalaripayat. References to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature date back to the 2nd century. This referred to the silambam
staff which was in great demand with foreign visitors.
References to fighting arts are found in early Buddhist texts
, such as the Lotus Sutra
(ca. 1st century AD) which refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri
. It also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples and throws. The Lotus Sutra
makes further mention of a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara. Another early Buddhist sutra
called Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda
and his cousin Devadatta
. Siddhartha Gautama himself was a champion of swordplay, wrestling and archery before becoming the Buddha
.
Like other branches of Sanskrit literature
, treatises on martial arts
become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD. Vajra musti
, a grappling style, is mentioned in sources of the early centuries CE. The Kama Sutra
written by Vātsyāyana
enjoined women to regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarterstaff, and bow and arrow". Around this time, tantric
philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini
, chakra
, and mantra
.
The Sushruta Samhita
(c. 4th century) identifies 107 vital points on the human body of which 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick. Sushruta
's work formed the basis of the medical discipline ayurveda
which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts, especially those that had an emphasis on vital points such as varma kalai
. With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India
's early fighters knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.
Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of varma adi
, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the style described in the Agni Purana.
Martial arts
were not exclusive to the Kshatriya
caste, though the warrior class used them more extensively. The 8th century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded fighting techniques being taught at ghatika and salad educational institutions, where non-Kshatriya students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India
, Rajasthan
and Bengal
) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)". Hindu priests of the Gurukullam institutions also taught armed and unarmed fighting techniques to their students as a way of increasing stamina and training the physical body.
(dated to between the 8th and the 11th century),
The dhanurveda section in the Agni Purana spans chapters 248–251. It divides the art into weapons that are thrown or unthrown. The thrown (mukta) class includes twelve weapons altogether which come under four categories, viz.
These were opposed to the much larger unthrown class of three categories.
The duel with bow and arrows is considered the most noble, fighting with the spear ranks next, while fighting with the sword is considered unrefined, and wrestling is classed as the meanest or worst form of fighting. Only a kshatriya
could be an acharya
(teacher) of dhanurveda, Brahmin
s and Vaishya
s should learn from the kshatriya, while a Shudra
could not take a teacher, left to "fight of his own in danger".
There follow nine asana
or positions of standing in a fight
Then there follows a more detailed discussion of archery technique.
The section concludes with listing the names of actions or "deeds" possible with a number of weapons, including 32 positions to be taken with sword and shield (), 11 names of techniques of using a rope in fighting, along with 5 names of "acts in the rope operation" along with lists of "deeds" pertaining to the chakra
, the spear, the iron club (tomara), the mace (gaḍa), the axe, the hammer, the bhindipāla or laguda, the vajra
, the dagger, the slingshot, and finally deeds with a bludgeon or cudgel.
is the Malla Purana (ca. 13th century). Other old styles like varma kalai
, and kalaripayat had developed into their present forms by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera
and Chola
dynasties.
Organised martial arts
in ancient India
included malla-yuddha
, or combat-wrestling, codified into four forms, Stories describing Krishna
report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds. Based on such accounts, Svinth (2002) traces press ups and squats used by India
n wrestlers to the pre-classical era.
There are scattered references to dhanurveda in other medieval texts, such as
the Kamandakiya Nitisara (ca. 8th c., ed. Dutt, 1896),
the Nitivakyamrta by Somadeva Suri
(10th century),
the Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja
(11th century) and
the Manasollasa of Somesvara III
(12th century)
There is an extant dhanurveda-samhita dating to the mid 14th century, by Brhat Sarngadhara Paddhati (ed. 1888).
After a series of victories, the conqueror Babur
established Mughal
rule in North India
during the 16th century. The Mughal
s, Persians of Mongol descent, practiced martial techniques such as wrestling and mounted archery. By combining indigenous malla-yuddha
with Turkic and Mongolian wrestling
they created the grappling style pehlwani
which has remained popular until today, particularly among Muslims. One of the Mughal
s' most enduring legacies on Indian martial arts was their introduction of the Turkish-influenced talwar
(scimitar). Although curved blades had been used in India
since ancient times, the straight khanda
(double-edge sword) had enjoyed greater popularity until then.
The Ausanasa Dhanurveda Sankalanam dates to the late 16th century, compiled under the patronage of Akbar.
There is also a 17th-century Dhanurveda-samhita attributed to Vasistha
.
, the Marathas excelled in guerilla warfare. Favoured by the Mughal rulers as loyal commanders of the army, they were made official protectors of the throne between 1720 and 1740. By 1751 they had control of western Deccan and became the most important power in India. The Marathas created a fighting system called mardani khel which focuses on weaponry, particularly swords. Its movements are rapid and makes use of low stances suited to the hill ranges where it originated. Shivaji himself was trained in armed combat from an early age and was an expert in the use of various arms, including the sword, bagh nakh, and bichawa (scorpion knife). His weapon of choice was a 4-foot sword named Bhawani, with a small handle and a spike upon the hilt for thrusting.
word for fighter or warrior (Padatika Bahini). Their style of fighting, known as paika akhada, can be traced back to ancient Kalinga
and was at one time patronised by King Kharavela
. In March 1817, under the leadership of Buxi Jagabandhu Bidydhar Mohapatra, nearly 400 Khanda of Ghumusar in Ganjam
marched towards Khurda in protest against British colonial rule. Many government buildings were burnt down and all the officials fled. The British commander of one detachment was killed during a battle at Gangpada. The paika managed to capture two bases at Puri and Pipli before spreading the rebellion further to Gop, Tiran, Kanika and Kujang. The revolt lasted a year and a half before being quelled by September 1818. With the rebellion put down, the colonists were more vigorous in their attempts to stamp out the martial practices of Orissa
. Today, paika akhada has been preserved only as a performance art.
was also banned and became more common in the Malay Peninsula
than its native Tamil Nadu. During this time, many fighting systems were confined to rural areas. A few became merely performance arts, such as karra samu (stick fighting) and kathi samu (sword fighting) from Andhra Pradesh
. The resurgence of public interest in kalaripayat began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout south India
which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule. During the following three decades, other regional styles were subsequently revived such as silambam
in Tamil Nadu
, and thang-ta
in Manipur
.
A wide array of weapons are used in South Asia
, some of which are not found anywhere else. According to P.C. Chakravati in The Art of War in Ancient India, armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal tipped spears, swords, thatched bamboo, wooden or metal shields, axes, short and long bows in warfare as early as the 4th century BC. Military accounts of the Gupta Empire
(c. 240–480) and the later Agni Purana identify over 130 different weapons, categorised into thrown and unthrown classes and further divided into several sub-classes.
Over time, weaponry evolved and India became famed for its flexible wootz steel. Armed forces were largely standardised and it is unclear if regular infantry were trained in any recognisable martial system other than standard military drills. More sophisticated techniques and weapons were employed by fighters trained in the warrior jati
.
vs. Dravidian speaking populations. The main difference is that northern India was more exposed to Persianate
influence during the Mughal period, while Southern India is more conservative in preserving ancient and medieval traditions. The exception to this rule are the northeastern states which, due to their geographic location, were closed off from most pre-European foreign invaders. Northeast Indian culture and fighting methods are also closely related to that of Southeast Asia
. In addition to the major division between north and south India, martial systems in South Asia tend to be associated with certain states, cities, villages or ethnic groups.
, while the term malakhra
refers to wrestling for sport. Malla-yuddha was codified into four forms which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known as yuddha. Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practiced. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off the ground for three seconds, still exists in south India. Malla-yuddha is virtually extinct in the north where it has been supplanted by Mughal pehlwani
. Vajra-musti
was another old grappling art in which the competitors wrestled while wearing a cestus-like knuckleduster. In a later variation, the duellists fought with a bagh nakh.
Numerous styles of folk wrestling are also found in India's countryside, such as mukna
from Manipur
and Inbuan wrestling
from Mizoram
.
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent, Indo-Pak Subcontinent or South Asian Subcontinent is a region of the Asian continent on the Indian tectonic plate from the Hindu Kush or Hindu Koh, Himalayas and including the Kuen Lun and Karakoram ranges, forming a land mass which extends...
is home to a variety of fighting styles
Martial arts
Martial arts are extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practiced for a variety of reasons, including self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development....
. In Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
they may be collectively referred to as or . The former is a compound of the words (sword, weapon) and (learning), meaning "knowledge of the sword" or "knowledge of weaponry". The latter term derives from the words for bow () and knowledge (), literally the "science of archery" in Puranic
Puranas
The Puranas are a genre of important Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religious texts, notably consisting of narratives of the history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography.Puranas...
literature, later applied to martial arts in general The Vishnu Purana
Vishnu Purana
The Vishnu Purana is a religious Hindu text and one of the eighteen Mahapuranas. It is considered one of the most important Puranas and has been given the name Puranaratna...
text describes dhanurveda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of "applied knowledge" or upaveda.
In Tamil
Tamil language
Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in the Indian union territory of Pondicherry. Tamil is also an official language of Sri Lanka and Singapore...
, they are either known under the umbrella of களரிக்கலை kalarikalai, meaning 'the art of the battleground', or தற்க்காப்புக்கலை tarkappukalai, meaning 'the art of self defence'.
Antiquity (pre-Gupta)
Indian epicsIndian epic poetry
Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent, traditionally called Kavya . The Ramayana and Mahabharata, originally composed in Sanskrit and translated thereafter into many other Indian languages, are some of the oldest surviving epic poems on earth and form part of...
contain accounts of combat, both armed and bare-handed. The Mahabharata
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna
Arjuna
Arjuna in Indian mythology is the greatest warrior on earth and is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Arjuna, whose name means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' Arjuna (Devanagari: अर्जुन, Thai: อรชุน, Orachun, Tamil: Arjunan, Indonesian and Javanese: Harjuna,...
and Karna
Karna
Karna or Radheya is one of the central characters in the epic Mahābhārata, from ancient India. He was the King of Anga...
using bows, swords, trees, rocks and fists. Another unarmed battle in the Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts. Krishna Maharaja, whose battlefield exploits are alluded to in the Mahabharata, is credited with developing the sixteen principles of śastravidyā.
Many of the popular sports mentioned in the Vedas
Vedas
The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
and the epics have their origins in military training, such as wrestling (maladvandva), chariot-racing (rathachalan), horse-riding (ashvarohana), boxing (musti yuddha) and archery (dhanurvidya). Competitions were held not just as a contest of the players' prowess but also as a means of finding a bridegroom. Arjuna
Arjuna
Arjuna in Indian mythology is the greatest warrior on earth and is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata. Arjuna, whose name means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' Arjuna (Devanagari: अर्जुन, Thai: อรชุน, Orachun, Tamil: Arjunan, Indonesian and Javanese: Harjuna,...
, Rama
Rama
Rama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
and Siddhartha Gautama all won their consorts in such tournaments.
In the 3rd century, elements from the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are 194 Indian sūtras that constitute the foundational text of Rāja Yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, and Rāja Yoga is the highest practice....
, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were incorporated into martial arts. A number of Indian fighting styles remain closely connected to yoga
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
, dance and performing arts. Some of the choreographed sparring in kalari payat can be applied to dance and kathakali
Kathakali
Kathakali is a highly stylized classical Indian dance-drama noted for the attractive make-up of characters, elaborate costumes, detailed gestures and well-defined body movements presented in tune with the anchor playback music and complementary percussion...
dancers who knew martial arts
Martial arts
Martial arts are extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practiced for a variety of reasons, including self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development....
were believed to be markedly better than the other performers. Until recent decades, chhau was practiced only by martial artists. Some traditional India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n dance schools still incorporate kalari payat as part of their exercise regimen.
Written evidence of martial arts in Southern India dates back to the Tamil Sangam literature
Sangam literature
Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years c. 600 BCE to 300 CE. This collection contains 2381 poems composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous The period during which these poems were composed is commonly referred to as the Sangam...
of about the 2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD. The Akananuru
Akananuru
Akananuru , a classical Tamil poetic work, is the seventh book in the Sangam literature anthology Ettuthokai. It contains 400 Akam poems dealing with matters of love and separation...
and Purananuru
Purananuru
Purananuru is a Tamil poetic work in the Pathinenmaelkanakku anthology of Tamil literature, belonging to the Sangam period corresponding to between 200 BCE – 100 CE. Purananuru is part of the Ettuthokai anthology which is the oldest available collection of poems of Sangam literature in Tamil....
describe the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam
Silambam
Silambam or silambattam is a weapon-based Dravidian martial art from Tamil Nadu in south India but also practised by the Tamil community of Sri Lanka and Malaysia. In Tamil, the word silambam refers to the bamboo staff which is the main weapon used in this style...
in the Sangam era. The word kalari
Kalari
The word Kalari means battle ground in Tamil and translates as "threshing floor" or "battlefield" in Malayalam. Training for Kalarippayattu, a martial art of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, is traditionally done inside the Kalari....
appears in the Puram (verses 225, 237, 245, 356) and Akam (verses 34, 231, 293) to describe both a battlefield and combat arena. The word kalari tatt denoted a martial feat, while kalari kozhai meant a coward in war. Each warrior in the Sangam era received regular military training in target practice and horse riding. They specialized in one or more of the important weapons of the period including the spear (vel), sword (val), shield (kedaham), and bow and arrow (vil ambu). The combat techniques of the Sangam period were the earliest precursors to kalaripayat. References to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature date back to the 2nd century. This referred to the silambam
Silambam
Silambam or silambattam is a weapon-based Dravidian martial art from Tamil Nadu in south India but also practised by the Tamil community of Sri Lanka and Malaysia. In Tamil, the word silambam refers to the bamboo staff which is the main weapon used in this style...
staff which was in great demand with foreign visitors.
References to fighting arts are found in early Buddhist texts
Buddhist texts
Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized...
, such as the Lotus Sutra
Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sūtra is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sūtras, and the basis on which the Tiantai and Nichiren sects of Buddhism were established.-Title:...
(ca. 1st century AD) which refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri
Manjusri
Mañjuśrī is a bodhisattva associated with transcendent wisdom in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Esoteric Buddhism he is also taken as a meditational deity. The Sanskrit name Mañjuśrī can be translated as "Gentle Glory"...
. It also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples and throws. The Lotus Sutra
Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sūtra is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sūtras, and the basis on which the Tiantai and Nichiren sects of Buddhism were established.-Title:...
makes further mention of a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara. Another early Buddhist sutra
Sutra
Sūtra is an aphorism or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. Literally it means a thread or line that holds things together and is derived from the verbal root siv-, meaning to sew , as does the medical term...
called Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda
Nanda (Buddhism)
Prince Nanda was the younger half-brother of the Buddha. He shared the same father as the Buddha, King Śuddhodana and his mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the Buddha's mother's younger sister....
and his cousin Devadatta
Devadatta
Devadatta was by tradition a Buddhist monk, cousin and brother-in-law of Gautama Siddārtha, the Śākyamuni Buddha, and brother of Ānanda, a principal student of the Buddha...
. Siddhartha Gautama himself was a champion of swordplay, wrestling and archery before becoming the Buddha
Buddha
In Buddhism, buddhahood is the state of perfect enlightenment attained by a buddha .In Buddhism, the term buddha usually refers to one who has become enlightened...
.
Classical period (3rd to 10th centuries)
Sanskrit literature
Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Sanskrit literature dates to late Antiquity . Literary production saw a late bloom in the 11th century before declining after 1100 AD...
, treatises on martial arts
Martial arts
Martial arts are extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practiced for a variety of reasons, including self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development....
become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD. Vajra musti
Vajra Mushti
Vajra Mushti is a Sanskrit bahuvrihi compound translating to "one who is grasping a thunderbolt" or "one whose clenched fist is like a diamond". It is a name of Indra mentioned in the Ramayana epic....
, a grappling style, is mentioned in sources of the early centuries CE. The Kama Sutra
Kama Sutra
The Kama Sutra is an ancient Indian Hindu text widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behavior in Sanskrit literature written by Vātsyāyana. A portion of the work consists of practical advice on sexual intercourse. It is largely in prose, with many inserted anustubh poetry verses...
written by Vātsyāyana
Vatsyayana
Vātsyāyana is the name of a Hindu philosopher in the Vedic tradition who is believed to have lived during time of the Gupta Empire in India...
enjoined women to regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarterstaff, and bow and arrow". Around this time, tantric
Tantra
Tantra , anglicised tantricism or tantrism or tantram, is the name scholars give to an inter-religious spiritual movement that arose in medieval India, expressed in scriptures ....
philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as kundalini
Kundalini
Kundalini literally means coiled. In yoga, a "corporeal energy" - an unconscious, instinctive or libidinal force or Shakti, lies coiled at the base of the spine. It is envisioned either as a goddess or else as a sleeping serpent, hence a number of English renderings of the term such as 'serpent...
, chakra
Chakra
Chakra is a concept originating in Hindu texts, featured in tantric and yogic traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Its name derives from the Sanskrit word for "wheel" or "turning" .Chakra is a concept referring to wheel-like vortices...
, and mantra
Mantra
A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
.
The Sushruta Samhita
Sushruta Samhita
The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text, attributed to one Sushruta, foundational to Ayurvedic medicine , with innovative chapters on surgery....
(c. 4th century) identifies 107 vital points on the human body of which 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick. Sushruta
Sushurata
Sushruta was an ancient Indian surgeon and is the author of the book Sushruta Samhita, in which he describes over 300 surgical procedures and 120 surgical instruments and classifies human surgery in eight categories...
's work formed the basis of the medical discipline ayurveda
Ayurveda
Ayurveda or ayurvedic medicine is a system of traditional medicine native to India and a form of alternative medicine. In Sanskrit, words , meaning "longevity", and , meaning "knowledge" or "science". The earliest literature on Indian medical practice appeared during the Vedic period in India,...
which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts, especially those that had an emphasis on vital points such as varma kalai
Varma Kalai
Varma adi or Marma adi is a part of the art of healing and harming Varma Kalai Marma Vidhya, It is a component of adi murai "law of hitting" which is a martial art that teaches methods to attack pressure points of the human body.This system of marmam is part of Siddha Vaidhyam, attributed to...
. With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
's early fighters knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.
Around 630, King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of varma adi
Varma Kalai
Varma adi or Marma adi is a part of the art of healing and harming Varma Kalai Marma Vidhya, It is a component of adi murai "law of hitting" which is a martial art that teaches methods to attack pressure points of the human body.This system of marmam is part of Siddha Vaidhyam, attributed to...
, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the style described in the Agni Purana.
Martial arts
Martial arts
Martial arts are extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practiced for a variety of reasons, including self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development....
were not exclusive to the Kshatriya
Kshatriya
*For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya, meaning warrior, is one of the four varnas in Hinduism...
caste, though the warrior class used them more extensively. The 8th century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded fighting techniques being taught at ghatika and salad educational institutions, where non-Kshatriya students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India
South India
South India is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area...
, Rajasthan
Rajasthan
Rājasthān the land of Rajasthanis, , is the largest state of the Republic of India by area. It is located in the northwest of India. It encompasses most of the area of the large, inhospitable Great Indian Desert , which has an edge paralleling the Sutlej-Indus river valley along its border with...
and Bengal
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)". Hindu priests of the Gurukullam institutions also taught armed and unarmed fighting techniques to their students as a way of increasing stamina and training the physical body.
Agni Purana
The earliest extant manual of dhanurveda is in the Agni PuranaAgni Purana
The Agni Purana, one of the 18 Mahapuranas, a genre of Hindu religious texts, contains descriptions and details of various incarnations of Vishnu. It also has details account about Rama, Krishna, Prithvi, and the stars...
(dated to between the 8th and the 11th century),
The dhanurveda section in the Agni Purana spans chapters 248–251. It divides the art into weapons that are thrown or unthrown. The thrown (mukta) class includes twelve weapons altogether which come under four categories, viz.
- yantra-mukta: projectile weapons such as the sling or the bow
- pāṇi-mukta: weapons thrown by hand such as the javelin
- mukta-sandharita: weapons that are thrown and drawn back, such as the rope-spear
- mantra-mukta: mythical weapons that are thrown by magic incantations (mantraMantraA mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
), numbering 6 types
These were opposed to the much larger unthrown class of three categories.
- hasta-śastra or amukta: melee weapons that do not leave the hand, numbering twenty types
- muktāmukta: weapons that can be thrown or used in-close, numbering 98 varieties
- bāhu-yuddha: nine weapons of the body (hands, feet, knees, elbows and head), i.e. unarmed fighting
The duel with bow and arrows is considered the most noble, fighting with the spear ranks next, while fighting with the sword is considered unrefined, and wrestling is classed as the meanest or worst form of fighting. Only a kshatriya
Kshatriya
*For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya, meaning warrior, is one of the four varnas in Hinduism...
could be an acharya
Acharya
In Indian religions and society, an acharya is a guide or instructor in religious matters; founder, or leader of a sect; or a highly learned man or a title affixed to the names of learned men...
(teacher) of dhanurveda, Brahmin
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
s and Vaishya
Vaishya
Vaishya is one of the four varnas of the Hindu social order. According to Vedic tradition, this caste primarily comprises merchants, farmers, cattle-herders and artisans.-Duties of Vaishyas:...
s should learn from the kshatriya, while a Shudra
Shudra
Shudra is the fourth Varna, as prescribed in the Purusha Sukta of the Rig veda, which constitutes society into four varnas or Chaturvarna. The other three varnas are Brahmans - priests, Kshatriya - those with governing functions, Vaishya - agriculturalists, cattle rearers and traders...
could not take a teacher, left to "fight of his own in danger".
There follow nine asana
Asana
Asana is a body position, typically associated with the practice of Yoga, originally identified as a mastery of sitting still, with the spine as a conduit of biodynamic union...
or positions of standing in a fight
- ("holding the feet even"): standing in closed ranks with the feet put together (248.9)
- : standing erect with the feet apart (248.10)
- ("disk"): standing with the knees apart, arranged in the shape of a flock of geese (248.11)
- ("licked, polished"): bending the right knee with the left foot pulled back (248.12)
- : bending the left knee with the right foot pulled back (248.13)
- ("origin"): placing the right foot straight with the left foot perpendicular, the ankles being five fingers apart (248.14)
- ("extended staff"): keeping the right knee bent with the left leg straight, or vice versa; called ("dreadful") if the two legs are two palm-lengths apart (248.16)
- ("hemisphere") (248.17)
- ("well-being"): keeping the feet 16 fingers apart and lifting the feet a little (248.19)
Then there follows a more detailed discussion of archery technique.
The section concludes with listing the names of actions or "deeds" possible with a number of weapons, including 32 positions to be taken with sword and shield (), 11 names of techniques of using a rope in fighting, along with 5 names of "acts in the rope operation" along with lists of "deeds" pertaining to the chakra
Chakra
Chakra is a concept originating in Hindu texts, featured in tantric and yogic traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Its name derives from the Sanskrit word for "wheel" or "turning" .Chakra is a concept referring to wheel-like vortices...
, the spear, the iron club (tomara), the mace (gaḍa), the axe, the hammer, the bhindipāla or laguda, the vajra
Vajra
Vajra is a Sanskrit word meaning both thunderbolt and diamond...
, the dagger, the slingshot, and finally deeds with a bludgeon or cudgel.
Middle Ages (11th to 15th centuries)
The earliest treatise discussing the techniques of malla-yuddhaMalla-yuddha
' is the traditional South Asian form of combat-wrestling created in what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka...
is the Malla Purana (ca. 13th century). Other old styles like varma kalai
Varma Kalai
Varma adi or Marma adi is a part of the art of healing and harming Varma Kalai Marma Vidhya, It is a component of adi murai "law of hitting" which is a martial art that teaches methods to attack pressure points of the human body.This system of marmam is part of Siddha Vaidhyam, attributed to...
, and kalaripayat had developed into their present forms by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera
Chera dynasty
Chera Dynasty in South India is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas, they formed the three principle warring Iron Age Tamil kingdoms in southern India...
and Chola
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
dynasties.
Organised martial arts
Martial arts
Martial arts are extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat, practiced for a variety of reasons, including self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental and spiritual development....
in ancient India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
included malla-yuddha
Malla-yuddha
' is the traditional South Asian form of combat-wrestling created in what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka...
, or combat-wrestling, codified into four forms, Stories describing Krishna
Krishna
Krishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds. Based on such accounts, Svinth (2002) traces press ups and squats used by India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n wrestlers to the pre-classical era.
There are scattered references to dhanurveda in other medieval texts, such as
the Kamandakiya Nitisara (ca. 8th c., ed. Dutt, 1896),
the Nitivakyamrta by Somadeva Suri
Somadeva Suri
Mukund Lath Somadeva Suri was a south Indian Jain monk of the 10th century AD , author of a work known as Upasakadyayana "chapter on lay followers ", a central work of Digambara shravakacara literature, i.e...
(10th century),
the Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja
Bhoja
Bhoja was a philosopher king and polymath of medieval India, who ruled the kingdom of Malwa in central India from about 1000 to 1050 CE. Also known as Raja Bhoja Of Dhar, he belonged to the Paramara dynasty...
(11th century) and
the Manasollasa of Somesvara III
Somesvara III
Somesvara III was a Western Chalukya king and son of Vikramaditya VI and Queen Chandaladevi. A king more inclined towards literature, Someshvara III had to face the invasion of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana but was able to suppress him...
(12th century)
There is an extant dhanurveda-samhita dating to the mid 14th century, by Brhat Sarngadhara Paddhati (ed. 1888).
Mughal era (1526 to 1857)
Babur
Babur was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who, following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty of South Asia. He was a direct descendant of Timur through his father, and a descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother...
established Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
rule in North India
North India
North India, known natively as Uttar Bhārat or Shumālī Hindustān , is a loosely defined region in the northern part of India. The exact meaning of the term varies by usage...
during the 16th century. The Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
s, Persians of Mongol descent, practiced martial techniques such as wrestling and mounted archery. By combining indigenous malla-yuddha
Malla-yuddha
' is the traditional South Asian form of combat-wrestling created in what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka...
with Turkic and Mongolian wrestling
Mongolian wrestling
Mongolian wrestling, known as Bökh , is the folk wrestling style of Mongols in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and other regions...
they created the grappling style pehlwani
Pehlwani
Pehlwani or Pahlavani or Kushti is a Persian style of wrestling popular in Iran, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. It was developed in the Mughal era through a synthesis of Indian malla-yuddha and Persian Varzesh-e Bastani....
which has remained popular until today, particularly among Muslims. One of the Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
s' most enduring legacies on Indian martial arts was their introduction of the Turkish-influenced talwar
Talwar
The talwar is a type of curved sword or sabre from India and modern-day Pakistan...
(scimitar). Although curved blades had been used in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
since ancient times, the straight khanda
Khanda (sword)
The blade is usually broad and quite heavy and broadens from the hilt to the tip. The blade transforms into tip rather abruptly. The hilt has a small metal spike coming out in the opposite direction typical of the khanda...
(double-edge sword) had enjoyed greater popularity until then.
The Ausanasa Dhanurveda Sankalanam dates to the late 16th century, compiled under the patronage of Akbar.
There is also a 17th-century Dhanurveda-samhita attributed to Vasistha
Vasistha
Vashist in the seventh, i.e the present Manvantara, and the Rajpurohit / Rajguru of the Suryavansha or Solar Dynasty. He was the mānasaputra of Brahma. He had in his possession the divine cow Kamadhenu, and Nandini her child, who could grant anything to their owners...
.
Maratha era (1650 to 1857)
The Marathas came to prominence during the 17th century due mostly to the efforts of Shivaji Rao Bhosle, his brother Ekoji, and later his son Sambhaji. Owing to the hilly geography of MaharashtraMaharashtra
Maharashtra is a state located in India. It is the second most populous after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India...
, the Marathas excelled in guerilla warfare. Favoured by the Mughal rulers as loyal commanders of the army, they were made official protectors of the throne between 1720 and 1740. By 1751 they had control of western Deccan and became the most important power in India. The Marathas created a fighting system called mardani khel which focuses on weaponry, particularly swords. Its movements are rapid and makes use of low stances suited to the hill ranges where it originated. Shivaji himself was trained in armed combat from an early age and was an expert in the use of various arms, including the sword, bagh nakh, and bichawa (scorpion knife). His weapon of choice was a 4-foot sword named Bhawani, with a small handle and a spike upon the hilt for thrusting.
Paika Rebellion of Khurda (1817)
Paika is the OriyaOriya language
Oriya , officially Odia from November, 2011, is an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family. It is mainly spoken in the Indian states of Orissa and West Bengal...
word for fighter or warrior (Padatika Bahini). Their style of fighting, known as paika akhada, can be traced back to ancient Kalinga
Kalinga
Kalinga is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Tabuk and borders Mountain Province to the south, Abra to the west, Isabela to the east, Cagayan to the northeast, and Apayao to the north...
and was at one time patronised by King Kharavela
Kharavela
Khārabēḷa was the third and greatest emperor of the Mahāmēghabāhana Dynasty of Kaḷinga . The main source of information about Khārabeḷa is his famous seventeen line rock-cut Hātigumphā inscription in a cave in the Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar, Orissa.During the reign of Khārabēḷa, the Chedi...
. In March 1817, under the leadership of Buxi Jagabandhu Bidydhar Mohapatra, nearly 400 Khanda of Ghumusar in Ganjam
Ganjam
Ganjam is a town and a notified area committee in Ganjam district in the state of Orissa, India.-Geography:Ganjam is located at . It has an average elevation of 3 metres .-Demographics:...
marched towards Khurda in protest against British colonial rule. Many government buildings were burnt down and all the officials fled. The British commander of one detachment was killed during a battle at Gangpada. The paika managed to capture two bases at Puri and Pipli before spreading the rebellion further to Gop, Tiran, Kanika and Kujang. The revolt lasted a year and a half before being quelled by September 1818. With the rebellion put down, the colonists were more vigorous in their attempts to stamp out the martial practices of Orissa
Orissa
Orissa , officially Odisha since Nov 2011, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BC. The modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April...
. Today, paika akhada has been preserved only as a performance art.
Modern period (1857 to present)
Indian martial arts underwent a period of decline after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century. More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional combat training associated with caste-specific duties. The British colonial government banned kalaripayat in 1804 in response to a series of revolts. SilambamSilambam
Silambam or silambattam is a weapon-based Dravidian martial art from Tamil Nadu in south India but also practised by the Tamil community of Sri Lanka and Malaysia. In Tamil, the word silambam refers to the bamboo staff which is the main weapon used in this style...
was also banned and became more common in the Malay Peninsula
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula or Thai-Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southern-most point of the Asian mainland...
than its native Tamil Nadu. During this time, many fighting systems were confined to rural areas. A few became merely performance arts, such as karra samu (stick fighting) and kathi samu (sword fighting) from Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh , is one of the 28 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of India. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population. Its capital and largest city by population is Hyderabad.The total GDP of Andhra Pradesh is $100 billion and is ranked third...
. The resurgence of public interest in kalaripayat began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout south India
South India
South India is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area...
which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule. During the following three decades, other regional styles were subsequently revived such as silambam
Silambam
Silambam or silambattam is a weapon-based Dravidian martial art from Tamil Nadu in south India but also practised by the Tamil community of Sri Lanka and Malaysia. In Tamil, the word silambam refers to the bamboo staff which is the main weapon used in this style...
in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh...
, and thang-ta
Thang-Ta
Thang-ta or huyen lallong is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the Meitei of Manipur. In the Manipuri language, thang means sword and ta means spear. As its name implies, the sword and spear are the primary weapons in thang-ta. The spear can be used in its non-missile form while in close...
in Manipur
Manipur
Manipur is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. Manipur is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west; it also borders Burma to the east. It covers an area of...
.
Weapons
South Asia
South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries to the west and the east...
, some of which are not found anywhere else. According to P.C. Chakravati in The Art of War in Ancient India, armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal tipped spears, swords, thatched bamboo, wooden or metal shields, axes, short and long bows in warfare as early as the 4th century BC. Military accounts of the Gupta Empire
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed approximately from 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the...
(c. 240–480) and the later Agni Purana identify over 130 different weapons, categorised into thrown and unthrown classes and further divided into several sub-classes.
Over time, weaponry evolved and India became famed for its flexible wootz steel. Armed forces were largely standardised and it is unclear if regular infantry were trained in any recognisable martial system other than standard military drills. More sophisticated techniques and weapons were employed by fighters trained in the warrior jati
Jati
Jāti is the term used to denote clans, tribes, communities and sub-communities in India. It is a term used across religions. In Indian society each jāti typically has an association with a traditional job function or tribe, although religious beliefs Jāti (in Devanagari: जाति Tamil:சாதி) (the...
.
Styles
As in other respects of Indian culture, Indian martial arts can be roughly divided into northern and southern styles, more or less corresponding to the major ethno-linguistic grouping of Indo-EuropeanIndo-European
Indo-European may refer to:* Indo-European languages** Aryan race, a 19th century and early 20th century term for those peoples who are the native speakers of Indo-European languages...
vs. Dravidian speaking populations. The main difference is that northern India was more exposed to Persianate
Persianate
A Persianate/Persified society is a society that is either based on, or strongly influenced by the Persian language, culture, literature, art, and/or identity....
influence during the Mughal period, while Southern India is more conservative in preserving ancient and medieval traditions. The exception to this rule are the northeastern states which, due to their geographic location, were closed off from most pre-European foreign invaders. Northeast Indian culture and fighting methods are also closely related to that of Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
. In addition to the major division between north and south India, martial systems in South Asia tend to be associated with certain states, cities, villages or ethnic groups.
North India
- GatkaGatkaGatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the Sikhs of the Punjab region. The word gatka refers to the wooden stick used in sparring matches. The term might have originated as a diminutive of the Sanskrit word gadha or mace....
is a weapon-based style created by SikhSikhA Sikh is a follower of Sikhism. It primarily originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region of South Asia. The term "Sikh" has its origin in Sanskrit term शिष्य , meaning "disciple, student" or शिक्ष , meaning "instruction"...
s of the Punjab. - LathiLathiLathi means stick and also refers to an Indian martial art based on cane-fighting. The word is used in Hindi, Bengali and various other Indian languages. The lathi typically measures 6 to and may be tipped with metal. It commonly used as a crowd control device by the Indian Police and other South...
is a style of cane-fighting originally practiced by village herdsmen. - Mardani khel is an armed method created by the MarathaMarathaThe Maratha are an Indian caste, predominantly in the state of Maharashtra. The term Marāthā has three related usages: within the Marathi speaking region it describes the dominant Maratha caste; outside Maharashtra it can refer to the entire regional population of Marathi-speaking people;...
s of MaharashtraMaharashtraMaharashtra is a state located in India. It is the second most populous after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India...
. - Musti yuddha is a style of kickboxing, popular in the Middle Ages but now confined to VaranasiVaranasi-Etymology:The name Varanasi has its origin possibly from the names of the two rivers Varuna and Assi, for the old city lies in the north shores of the Ganga bounded by its two tributaries, the Varuna and the Asi, with the Ganges being to its south...
. - Pari-khanda is a style of sword and shield fighting from BiharBiharBihar is a state in eastern India. It is the 12th largest state in terms of geographical size at and 3rd largest by population. Almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, which is the highest proportion in India....
. - Thang-taThang-TaThang-ta or huyen lallong is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the Meitei of Manipur. In the Manipuri language, thang means sword and ta means spear. As its name implies, the sword and spear are the primary weapons in thang-ta. The spear can be used in its non-missile form while in close...
or huyen lalong is an armed system created by the Meitei of ManipurManipurManipur is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. Manipur is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west; it also borders Burma to the east. It covers an area of...
.
South India
- Kalaripayat has its roots in the combat training halls (payattu kalari) of KeralaKeralaor Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
's traditional educational system. - Paika akhada was a weapon-based system formerly practiced by the warriors of OrissaOrissaOrissa , officially Odisha since Nov 2011, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BC. The modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April...
. - SilambamSilambamSilambam or silambattam is a weapon-based Dravidian martial art from Tamil Nadu in south India but also practised by the Tamil community of Sri Lanka and Malaysia. In Tamil, the word silambam refers to the bamboo staff which is the main weapon used in this style...
is a weapon-based style from Tamil NaduTamil NaduTamil Nadu is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh...
which focuses on the bamboo staff. - [Kuttu Varisai]is the unarmed component of silambam, a Dravidian martial art from Tamil Nadu in south India but also practiced by the Tamil people of Malaysia and northeast Sri Lanka.
Wrestling
Wrestling arts are found throughout India and were generically referred to in Sanskrit as malavidya or 'science of grappling'. True combat-wrestling is called malla-yuddhaMalla-yuddha
' is the traditional South Asian form of combat-wrestling created in what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka...
, while the term malakhra
Malakhra
Malakhra is the South Asian form of sport wrestling, as opposed to malla-yuddha or combat-wrestling. It is mostly played in Pakistan and parts of India. The match begins with both wrestlers tying a twisted cloth around the opponent's waist. Each one then holds onto the opponent's waistcloth and...
refers to wrestling for sport. Malla-yuddha was codified into four forms which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known as yuddha. Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practiced. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off the ground for three seconds, still exists in south India. Malla-yuddha is virtually extinct in the north where it has been supplanted by Mughal pehlwani
Pehlwani
Pehlwani or Pahlavani or Kushti is a Persian style of wrestling popular in Iran, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. It was developed in the Mughal era through a synthesis of Indian malla-yuddha and Persian Varzesh-e Bastani....
. Vajra-musti
Vajra-musti
Vajra-musti refers to a knuckleduster-like weapon and also the name of ancient Indian martial art practiced by a class of wrestlers known as . The weapon is sometimes called bhukhandi or Indra-mukti which means Indra's fist. Wrestlers would compete with a vajramusti on one hand, from where the...
was another old grappling art in which the competitors wrestled while wearing a cestus-like knuckleduster. In a later variation, the duellists fought with a bagh nakh.
Numerous styles of folk wrestling are also found in India's countryside, such as mukna
Mukna
Mukna is a form of folk wrestling from the north-east Indian state of Manipur. It is popular in Imphal, Thoubal and Bishnupur. The game is generally played on the last day of the Lai Haraoba festival and is an intrinsic part of the ceremonial functions....
from Manipur
Manipur
Manipur is a state in northeastern India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. Manipur is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the north, Mizoram to the south and Assam to the west; it also borders Burma to the east. It covers an area of...
and Inbuan wrestling
Inbuan Wrestling
Inuban is a form of wrestling native to the people of Mizoram in India. Inbuan is said to have originated in the village of Dungtland in 1750. It was recognized as a sport after the Mizo people migrated from Burma to the Lushai Hills....
from Mizoram
Mizoram
Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India, sharing borders with the states of Tripura, Assam, Manipur and with the neighbouring countries of Bangladesh and Burma. Mizoram became the 23rd state of India on 20 February 1987. Its capital is Aizawl. Mizoram is located in the...
.
External links
- Hegarty, Stephanie. "The only living master of a dying martial art." BBCBBCThe British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. Its headquarters is at Broadcasting House in the City of Westminster, London. It is the largest broadcaster in the world, with about 23,000 staff...
. 29 October 2011.