Indoor rower
Encyclopedia
Watercraft rowing
Watercraft rowing is the act of propelling a boat using the motion of oars in the water. The difference between paddling and rowing is that with rowing the oars have a mechanical connection with the boat whereas with paddling the paddles are hand-held with no mechanical connection.This article...
for the purpose of exercise or training for rowing
Sport rowing
Rowing is a sport in which athletes race against each other on rivers, on lakes or on the ocean, depending upon the type of race and the discipline. The boats are propelled by the reaction forces on the oar blades as they are pushed against the water...
. Indoor rowing has become established as a sport in its own right. The term also refers to a participant in this sport.
Modern indoor rowers are often known as ergometer
Ergometer
Ergometer may refer to:*Exercise machine, equipped with an apparatus for measuring the work performed by exercising*Indoor rower, called an ergometer by rowers* An instrument for measuring the amount of work done by human muscles...
s (colloquially erg or ergo), an ergometer being a device which measures the amount of work
Mechanical work
In physics, work is a scalar quantity that can be described as the product of a force times the distance through which it acts, and it is called the work of the force. Only the component of a force in the direction of the movement of its point of application does work...
performed. The indoor rower is calibrated to measure the amount of energy the rower is generating.
History
Early rowing machines are known to have existed from the mid 1800's, a US patent being issued to WB Curtis in 1872 for a particular hydraulic based damper design. Machines using linear pneumatic resistance existed around 1900, but they did not simulate actual rowing very accurately nor measure power output. In the 1950s and 1960s, coaches in many countries began using specially made rowing machines for training and improved powerPower (physics)
In physics, power is the rate at which energy is transferred, used, or transformed. For example, the rate at which a light bulb transforms electrical energy into heat and light is measured in watts—the more wattage, the more power, or equivalently the more electrical energy is used per unit...
measurement. One such design was a large, heavy, solid iron flywheel with a mechanical friction brake
Brake
A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular brakes....
using leather straps, developed by John Harrison of Leichhardt Rowing Club in Sydney. The leather straps were sensitive to humidity making the results less accurate. This friction based design was to meet the needs of one of the fathers of modern athletic physiological training and testing, and the coach of the Leichhardt Guinea Pigs, Professor Frank Cotton. Harrison, who went on to row in the coxless four at the 1956 Melbourne Olympics, later became Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of New South Wales. These machines were capable of setting friction according to a rower's weight to give an accurate appraisal of boat-moving ability (drag on a boat is proportional to weight). The weight correction factor tended to make them unpopular among rowers of the time.
In the 1970s the Gjessing-Nilson ergometer from Norway, used a friction brake mechanism with industrial strapping applied over the broad rim of the flywheel. Weights hanging from the strap ensured that an adjustable and predictable friction could be calculated. The cord from the handle mechanism ran over a helical pulley with varying radius, thereby adjusting the gearing and speed of the handle in a similar way to the changing mechanical gearing of the oar through the stroke, derived from changes in oar angle and other factors. This machine was for many years the internationally accepted standard for measurement.
The first air resistance ergometers were introduced around 1980 by Repco
Repco
Repco is an Australian automotive engineering company. Its name is an abbreviation of Replacement Parts Company and it is best known for spare parts and motor accessories....
. The Concept 2 ergometer was introduced in 1981 by the Dreissigacker
Dick Dreissigacker
Dick Dreissigacker was a U.S. Olympic rower and is a founder of Concept2 . While studying engineering at Brown University he took up rowing and went on to represent the United States at the 1972 Summer Olympics....
brothers. This machine's capability of accurate measurement combined with easy transportability spawned the sport of competitive indoor rowing, and revolutionised training for watercraft rowing. Their design was radically improved in 1989 and 1993.
In 1988 a Dutch engineer, Casper Rekers, took a significant step in the development of rowing machines, developing the Rowperfect rowing simulator. The resistance mechanism is mounted on bearings sitting on the same bar as the rower, and therefore able to move in harmony with the rower's mass as is the case in a boat. In its patented design (Patents: U.S.Patent 5,382,210 European Patent 0 376 403 B1) a critical advantage of the improvement is the reduction in forces on the user's joints at the beginning (catch) and end (finish) of the stroke. The mass of the resistance mechanism was carefully matched to that of a racing boat.
Design layout of the machine
Most rowing-machine designs consist of: An energy damper or braking mechanism attached to a flywheelFlywheel
A flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to store rotational energy. Flywheels have a significant moment of inertia, and thus resist changes in rotational speed. The amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational speed...
and in turn connected to a chain and handle, which when pulled engage and spin the flywheel. A foot stretcher (where the rower places his feet) and which is attached to the same mounting as the flywheel and energy damper. A horizontal rail or rails on which usually the seat is located and slides horizontally. A seat on the rail which allows the seat to move toward and away from the flywheel. A handle as described above is attached by a flexible chain or cord rope which extend horizontally to and over a cog or pulley attaching to the flywheel. The rower can sit down and push on the foot stretcher while pulling horizontally on the handle causing the distance between the foot stretcher and handle to increase and so apply resultant force to the flywheel. The rower emulates the rowing action. He/She holds the handle in the hands with straight arms, and pushes against the foot stretcher with the feet using the legs, then pivots their back, and then bends the elbows pulling on the handle. This action causes the handle and flywheel to move apart, and the flywheel to spin. The flywheel has an energy damper or braking mechanism attached. This is usually uses either pneumatic (air), hydraulic (liquid) or magnetic damping. The energy damper causes the flywheel to steadily slow down once the handle and foot stretcher have reached the maximum extent of separation at the end of the rowing stroke.
There are three possible designs to allow the foot stretcher (with flywheel) and handle to move relatively nearer and apart from each other.
Fixed feet (wheel)
The first option is the historic arrangement with the foot stretcher and flywheel together stationary to the ground with only the seat sliding on a rail. This is generally analogous to the seat sliding on rails in the boat.Floating feet and seat
The second option is where both the seat and the foot stretcher slide on a rail. This is analogous to both the seat sliding on the boat, and the boat sliding relative to the rower, on the water. The relative movement of seat and flywheel are similar to the result of the rower moving at steadier average speed while the boat's speed varies much more relative to the rower.(Patented by Rekers 1988).Fixed seat
The third option has the seat fixed. Only the foot stretcher slides backward and away from the rower.Design summary
Depending on the design either the rower moves back and forth or both the rower and flywheel move, or the rower remains stationary and only flywheel mechanism moves.Machines with a digital display calculate the user's power by measuring the speed of the flywheel during the stroke and then recording the rate at which it decelerates during the recovery. Using this and the known moment of inertia
Moment of inertia
In classical mechanics, moment of inertia, also called mass moment of inertia, rotational inertia, polar moment of inertia of mass, or the angular mass, is a measure of an object's resistance to changes to its rotation. It is the inertia of a rotating body with respect to its rotation...
of the flywheel, the computer is able to calculate speed, power, distance and energy usage.
Some ergometers can be connected to a personal computer using software, and data on individual exercise sessions can be collected and analyzed. In addition, some software packages allows users to connect multiple ergometers over the internet for virtual races and workouts.
Exercise
Indoor rowing primarily works the cardiovascular systems with typical workouts consisting of steady pieces of 20–40 minutes, although the standard trial distance for record attempts is 2000 m, which can take from 5 and a half minutes (best elite male rowers) to 9 minutes or more. Like other forms of cardio focused exercise, interval trainingInterval training
Interval training is a type of physical training that involves bursts of high-intensity work interspersed with periods of low-intensity work...
is also commonly used in indoor rowing. While cardio-focused, rowing also stresses many muscle groups throughout the body anaerobically, thus rowing is often referred to as a strength-endurance sport.
Unlike high impact exercises, which can damage knees and the connective tissues of the lower body, rowing's most common injury site is the lower back. Proper technique is a necessity for staying injury free, with a focus on both mechanics and breathing, as correct rhythm, exhaling on the drive and inhaling on the recovery, is a stabilizing force for the upper body. Non-rowers commonly overemphasize the muscles of the upper body, while correct technique uses the large muscle of the thighs to drive much of the stroke. Also, good technique requires that the angle of the upper body is never too far forward, nor too far back, both of which jeopardize the lower back and compression injuries on the knees and hip flexor muscles.
In addition to the high levels of fitness attained, rowing is an intense calorie-burning exercise. Although rowers with less ability and training will burn fewer calories, the ergometer is an excellent tool for use in a weight-loss program.
The standard measurement of speed on an ergometer is generally known as the "split," or the amount of time in minutes and seconds required to travel 500 meters at the current pace — a split of 2:00 represents a speed of two minutes per 500 metres, or about 4.17 metre per second. The split does not necessarily correspond to how many strokes the rower takes (the "rating") since strokes can vary in power.
Ergometer testing
Ergometer tests are used by rowing coaches to evaluate rowers and is part of athlete selection for many senior and junior national rowing teams. During a test, rowers will row a set distance and try to clock the fastest time possible. The most common distances for erg tests are 2000, 5000, 6000 or 10000 meters. Results of these tests are an objective measure of an athlete's fitness; however, weight, technique and team coordination also impact performance in a boat, thus assembling a crew based purely on erg scores is not an optimal strategy. In fact it is not unheard of for teams that are considerably faster on the ergometer to be beaten on the water.Rower variety
Piston resistance comes from hydraulic cylinders that are attached to the handles of the rowing machine. The length of the rower handles on this class of rower is typically adjustable, however, during the row the handle length is fixed which in turn fixes the trajectory that the hands must take on the stroke and return, thus making the stroke less accurate than is possible on the other types of resistance models where it is possible to emulate the difference in hand height on the stroke and return. Furthermore, many models in this class have a fixed seat position that eliminates the leg drive which is the foundation of competitive on water rowing technique. Because of the compact size of the pistons and mechanical simplicity of design, these models are typically not as large or as expensive as the others types.Braked flywheel resistance models comprise magnetic, air and water resistance rowers. These machines are mechanically similar since all three types use a handle connected to a flywheel by rope, chain, or strap to provide resistance to the user – the types differ only in braking mechanism. Because the handle is attached to the resistance source by rope or similarly flexible media, the trajectory of the hands in the vertical plane is free making it possible for the rower to emulate the hand height difference between the stroke and the return. Most of these models have the characteristic sliding seat typical of competitive on-the-water boats.
- Magnetic resistance models control resistance by means of electromagnets that engage a mechanical brake with the flywheel. The magnetic braking system is quieter than the other braked flywheel types. The braking resistance is adjustable and energy can be accurately measured on this type of rower.
- Air resistance models use fanlike air-fins on the flywheel to provide the flywheel braking needed to generate resistance. As the flywheel is spun faster, the air resistance increases. A damper can be used to adjust the airflow with respect to the air fins and thus change the feel of the stroke. The energy dissipated can be accurately calculated given the known mass of the flywheel and speed sensors to measure the deceleration of the flywheel. Air resistance rowing machines are most often used by sport rowers (particularly during the off season and inclement weather) and competitive indoor rowers.
- Water resistance models consist of a paddle revolving in an enclosed tank of water. The mass and drag of the moving water creates the resistance. Proponents claim that this approach results in a more realistic action than possible with air or magnetic type machines.
Performance calculation on all rowing machines monitors is dependent upon the algorithm used by the individual manufacturer, and will be affected by the type of resistance used and other factors. The higher quality machines will come with monitors that are calibrated so that they accurately measure and record performance that can be compared to each other.
Rowing technique
Rowing on an ergometer requires four basics phases to complete one stroke; the catch, the drive, the finish and the recovery. The catch is the initial part of the stroke. The drive is where the power from the rower is generated while the finish is the final part of the stoke. Then, the recovery is the initial phase to begin taking a new stroke. The phases repeat until a time duration or a distance is completed.Catch
Knees are bent with the shins in a vertical position. The back should be parallel to the thigh while maintaining an upright posture. The arms and shoulders should be extended forward and relaxed. The arms should be parallel to the base of the ergometer or the floor.Drive
The drive is initiated by the extension of the legs from the foot stretcher of the ergometer. The body remains in the upright posture at this point of the drive. As the legs continue to full extension, the rower engages the core (anatomy)Core (anatomy)
In anatomy, the core refers, in its most general of definitions, to the body minus the legs and arms. Functional movements are highly dependent on the core, and lack of core development can result in a predisposition to injury...
to begin the motion of the body levering backward. As the torso moves backwards it adds to the work of the legs. When the legs are flat, the rower begins to pull the handle toward the chest with their arms while keeping their arms straight and parallel to the floor.
Finish
The legs are at full extension and flat. The shoulders are slightly behind the pelvis, and the arms are in full contraction with the elbows bent and hands against the chest below the nipples. The back of the rower is still maintained in an upright posture.Recovery
The recovery is a slow slide back to the initial part of the stroke, it gives the rower time to recover from the previous stroke. During the recovery the actions are in reverse order of the drive. The arms are fully extended so that they are straight. The torso is engaged to move forward back over the pelvis. Weight transfers from the back of the seat to the front of the seat at this time. When the hands come over the knees, the legs contract back towards the foot stretcher. Slowly the back becomes more parallel to the thighs until the recovery becomes the catch.Competitions
A large number of indoor rowing competitions are held all over the world, including the indoor rowing world championships (also known as CRASH-B SprintsCRASH-B Sprints
The C.R.A.S.H-B Sprints is the world championship for indoor rowing raced over a distance of 2,000 m on Concept2 indoor rowers. It is held every February in Boston, Massachusetts, recently at Boston University's Agganis Arena. Previous venues have included the Reggie Lewis Track and Field Center...
) held in Boston
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
, Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
, United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
in February and the British Indoor Rowing Championships
British Indoor Rowing Championships
The British Indoor Rowing Championships is an indoor rowing event organised by Concept2. It first began in 1991 with the first event held in Henley-on-Thames attracting 200 competitors. Over the years it outgrew all of its venues and has been held since 2000 at the National Indoor Arena in...
held in Birmingham
Birmingham
Birmingham is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England. It is the most populous British city outside the capital London, with a population of 1,036,900 , and lies at the heart of the West Midlands conurbation, the second most populous urban area in the United Kingdom with a...
, England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
in November; both are rowed on Concept2s. The core event for most competitions is the individual 2,000m; less common are the mile (e.g., Evesham), the 2500m (e.g., Basingstoke — also the original distance of the CRASH-B Sprints). Many competitions also include a sprint event (100m-500m) and sometimes team relay events. The machines used are consistent although the resistance may be adjusted. The resistance adjustment does not affect the energy measurement so a result on one machine can be fairly compared with results on other machines regardless of resistance level.
Most competitions are organized into categories based on sex, age, and weight class. While the fastest times are generally achieved by rowers between 20 and 40 years old, teenagers and rowers over 90 are common at competitions. There is a nexus between performance on-water and performance on the ergometer, with open events at the World Championships often being dominated by elite on-water rowers. Former men's Olympic single scull champions Pertti Karppinen
Pertti Karppinen
Pertti Johannes Karppinen is a Finnish rower who is legendary for his three consecutive Olympic Gold medals in Single Sculls in 1976, 1980, and 1984. He also won World Championships in 1979 and 1985. He once held the world record in indoor rowing. Karppinen's style was to row a steady race and...
and Rob Waddell
Rob Waddell
Robert "Rob" Norman Waddell, ONZM, is a New Zealand rower, yachtsman and rugby union player. Waddell has one of the highest VO2 max intake levels of any athlete ever tested. He holds the fastest 2000 metre indoor rowing machine time in the world, clocking a time of 5 mins 36.6 secs...
and five-time Gold Medalist Sir Steven Redgrave
Steve Redgrave
Sir Steven Geoffrey Redgrave CBE is an English rower who won gold medals at five consecutive Olympic Games from 1984 to 2000. He has also won three Commonwealth Games gold medals and nine World Rowing Championships gold medals...
have all won world championships or set world records in indoor rowing.
In addition to live venue competitions, many erg racers compete by internet, either offline by posting scores to challenges, or live online races facilitated by computer connection.