Inocybe maculata
Encyclopedia
Inocybe maculata, commonly known
as the frosty fibrecap, is a species of mushroom
in the Inocybaceae
family. First described by Jean Louis Émile Boudier
in 1885, I. maculata can be found throughout Europe, Asia and North America. It is a medium-sized brown mushroom with a fibrous, brown cap
with white remnants of a universal veil
in the middle. The stem
is cream or brown. The species is ectomycorrhizal and grows at the base of various trees, including beech
. Inocybe maculata is poisonous, containing muscarine
. Possible symptoms after consumption of I. maculata mushrooms are salivation, lacrimation, urination
, defecation
, gastrointestinal problems and vomiting, with the possibility of death due to respiratory failure
.
in 1885 in an article in the Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Within the genus
Inocybe
, it has placed within the subgenus
Inosperma and section
Rimosae. However, Phylogenetic analysis, has shown that section Rimosae as formerly defined does not form a monophyletic group (that is, descended from a single exclusive ancestor), and former Rimosae species are better grouped into two clades
, Maculata and Rimosae. Other species joining I. maculata in the Maculata clade include I. cookei
, I. quietiodor, I. rhodiola, I. adaequata, and I. erubescens.
Inocybe maculata has no generally recognised synonyms
. However, there has been some debate about its status as a single species; due to the wide geographic and morphological
variation of the species, some authors have proposed multiple species and varieties. In response, mycologist Thom Kuyper has listed over thirty specific names and varieties as synonyms of Inocybe lacera, which is still generally recognised. It has also been suggested that Inocybe lanatodisca is a synonym, but where the species occur together, they can be distinguished from each other, and so it is still recognised as distinct. The form
I. maculata f. fulva was named and described in 1991 by Marcel Bon
in France. Inocybe maculata is commonly known
as the frosty fibrecap.
which is up to 8 centimetres (3.1 in) in diametre. As the mushrooms age, the cap becomes flatter, and the broad umbo
becomes prominent. The centre of the cap has white remains of the universal veil
, especially on younger mushrooms. The cap is covered in fibres which extend from the centre of the cap to the margin (which is usually split). The cap is typically a chestnut
brown in colour, though it is paler towards the margin. As well as chestnut, the camp has been described as "Buckthorn brown", "snuff brown", "tawny olive" and "Saccardo's umber". Both cap colour and the presences of veil remnants are known to be very variable. In appearance, Inocybe maculata f. fulva has a lighter cap colour (typically more yellow to reddish-brown) and less (or even no) remnants of the veil on the cap. The gill attachment is adnate, meaning that the gills are attached to the stem
along their entire depth. The gills are crowded, with white edges that are finely toothed. Younger mushrooms have gills that are greyish-white that eventually mature to an olive-brown colour. The stem is up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in length, and generally cylindrical in shape, though it is often thicker towards the base. While the stem is initially solid, it later becomes hollow. There is often a small bulb at the base of the stem. The stem has cream colouration, becoming gradually browner with age. The base sometimes white and powdery. The flesh
is white.
s (μm) by 5 to 9 μm. The sterigmata (the narrow horns on the end of the basidia which hold the spores) are 4 to 5 μm long. It lacks pleurocystidia. The species leaves a snuff
-brown spore print
. The spore
s themselves are smooth and bean
shaped; they have a yellow-brown to rusty brown colouration, and measure from 9 to 11 μm by 4.5 to 5.5 μm. The hyphae can have clamp connections, but can also lack them.
, the split fibrecap, but it can be differentiated by the darker colouration of the cap, and the white remains of the veil in the centre of the cap. The species is also similar in appearance to Inocybe lanatodisca, but can be readily distinguished by odour (I. lanatodisca has a characteristic sweet, green-corn smell) and the colour of the cap (I. lanatodisca has a fulvous
cap). It is closely related to Inocybe fastigiata, but can again be distinguished by colour; I. fastigiata has lighter coloured fibrils.
s from low-lying deciduous woodland to arctic
-alpine
areas. It typically grows on the ground in deciduous
(or mixed) woodland, favouring beech
. It grows best on chalk
y soil, among leaf litter. In North America, it favours sandy soil, clay
or moss
. It is also encountered on pathsides. As well as beech, the species has been recorded growing in association with hornbeam
, hazel
, oak
and lime
. Inocybe maculata f. fulva favours birch
, spruce
, pine
, Populus, willow
, (as well as Dryas
and Polygonum
in alpine regions). Mushrooms grow individually or in scattered groups. Though widespread in the areas it is found, it is not a common species. It can be found from western Europe to eastern Asia; and in North America, from where it was first collected in the 1960s. Inocybe maculata f. fulva was first identified in France
, and has since been found elsewhere in Europe.
compounds. Consumption of the mushroom could lead to a number of physiological effects, including: salivation, lacrimation, urination
, defecation
, gastrointestinal problems and emesis (vomiting); this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE. Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure
, sweating
and death due to respiratory failure
.
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
as the frosty fibrecap, is a species of mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
in the Inocybaceae
Inocybaceae
The Inocybaceae are a family of fungi in the Agaricales order. According to a 2008 estimate, the family contains 13 genera and 821 species. Members of this family have a widespread distribution in tropical and temperate areas.-Taxonomy:...
family. First described by Jean Louis Émile Boudier
Jean Louis Émile Boudier
Jean Louis Émile Boudier was a pharmacist who lived in Montmorency, France. He published a fair amount about the Discomycetes and other areas of mycology...
in 1885, I. maculata can be found throughout Europe, Asia and North America. It is a medium-sized brown mushroom with a fibrous, brown cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
with white remnants of a universal veil
Universal veil
In mycology, a universal veil is a temporary membranous tissue that fully envelops immature fruiting bodies of certain gilled mushrooms. The developing Caesar's mushroom , for example, which may resemble a small white sphere at this point, is protected by this structure...
in the middle. The stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
is cream or brown. The species is ectomycorrhizal and grows at the base of various trees, including beech
Beech
Beech is a genus of ten species of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America.-Habit:...
. Inocybe maculata is poisonous, containing muscarine
Muscarine
Muscarine, L--muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in Inocybe and Clitocybe species, such as the deadly C. dealbata. Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena have also been found to contain levels of muscarine which can be dangerous if ingested...
. Possible symptoms after consumption of I. maculata mushrooms are salivation, lacrimation, urination
Urination
Urination, also known as micturition, voiding, peeing, weeing, pissing, and more rarely, emiction, is the ejection of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. In healthy humans the process of urination is under voluntary control...
, defecation
Defecation
Defecation is the final act of digestion by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid or liquid waste material from the digestive tract via the anus. Waves of muscular contraction known as peristalsis in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum...
, gastrointestinal problems and vomiting, with the possibility of death due to respiratory failure
Respiratory failure
The term respiratory failure, in medicine, is used to describe inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, with the result that arterial oxygen and/or carbon dioxide levels cannot be maintained within their normal ranges. A drop in blood oxygenation is known as hypoxemia; a rise in arterial...
.
Taxonomy, phylogeny, and naming
The species was given its specific epithet, "maculata" (from the Latin for "spotted"), by Jean Louis Émile BoudierJean Louis Émile Boudier
Jean Louis Émile Boudier was a pharmacist who lived in Montmorency, France. He published a fair amount about the Discomycetes and other areas of mycology...
in 1885 in an article in the Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France. Within the genus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Inocybe
Inocybe
Inocybe is a large, complex genus of mushrooms. Members of Inocybe are mycorrhizal, and some evidence shows that the high degree of speciation in the genus is due to adaptation to different trees and perhaps even local environments.-Description:...
, it has placed within the subgenus
Subgenus
In biology, a subgenus is a taxonomic rank directly below genus.In zoology, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the generic name and the specific epithet: e.g. the Tiger Cowry of the Indo-Pacific, Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, which...
Inosperma and section
Section (botany)
In botany, a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus, but above the species. The subgenus, if present, is higher than the section, and the rank of series, if present, is below the section. Sections are typically used to help organise very large genera, which may have hundreds of species...
Rimosae. However, Phylogenetic analysis, has shown that section Rimosae as formerly defined does not form a monophyletic group (that is, descended from a single exclusive ancestor), and former Rimosae species are better grouped into two clades
Cladistics
Cladistics is a method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants . For example, birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles, and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor form a clade...
, Maculata and Rimosae. Other species joining I. maculata in the Maculata clade include I. cookei
Inocybe cookei
Inocybe cookei, commonly known as the straw fibrecap, is a species of mushroom in the Inocybaceae family. It was first described in 1892 by Giacomo Bresadola, and is named in honour of Mordecai Cubitt Cooke. The species can be found in Europe, Asia and North America...
, I. quietiodor, I. rhodiola, I. adaequata, and I. erubescens.
Inocybe maculata has no generally recognised synonyms
Synonym (taxonomy)
In scientific nomenclature, a synonym is a scientific name that is or was used for a taxon of organisms that also goes by a different scientific name. For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies...
. However, there has been some debate about its status as a single species; due to the wide geographic and morphological
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
variation of the species, some authors have proposed multiple species and varieties. In response, mycologist Thom Kuyper has listed over thirty specific names and varieties as synonyms of Inocybe lacera, which is still generally recognised. It has also been suggested that Inocybe lanatodisca is a synonym, but where the species occur together, they can be distinguished from each other, and so it is still recognised as distinct. The form
Form (botany)
In botanical nomenclature, a form is one of the "secondary" taxonomic ranks, below that of variety, which in turn is below that of species; it is an infraspecific taxon...
I. maculata f. fulva was named and described in 1991 by Marcel Bon
Marcel Bon
Marcel Bon is one of France’s best known field mycologists. He was born in Picardy, in 1925 and came to mycology through general botany, and pharmacology...
in France. Inocybe maculata is commonly known
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
as the frosty fibrecap.
Description
Inocybe maculata has a conical or bell-shaped capPileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
which is up to 8 centimetres (3.1 in) in diametre. As the mushrooms age, the cap becomes flatter, and the broad umbo
Umbo (mycology)
thumb|right|[[Cantharellula umbonata]] has an umbo.thumb|right|The cap of [[Psilocybe makarorae]] is acutely papillate.An umbo is a raised area in the center of a mushroom cap. Caps that possess this feature are called umbonate. Umbos that are sharply pointed are called acute, while those that are...
becomes prominent. The centre of the cap has white remains of the universal veil
Universal veil
In mycology, a universal veil is a temporary membranous tissue that fully envelops immature fruiting bodies of certain gilled mushrooms. The developing Caesar's mushroom , for example, which may resemble a small white sphere at this point, is protected by this structure...
, especially on younger mushrooms. The cap is covered in fibres which extend from the centre of the cap to the margin (which is usually split). The cap is typically a chestnut
Chestnut (color)
Chestnut, also known as Indian red, is a color, a medium brownish shade of red, and is named after the nut of the chestnut tree.As Indian red, it is named after the red laterite soil found in India. It is thus an earth tone as well as a red. It is composed of naturally occurring iron oxides. Other...
brown in colour, though it is paler towards the margin. As well as chestnut, the camp has been described as "Buckthorn brown", "snuff brown", "tawny olive" and "Saccardo's umber". Both cap colour and the presences of veil remnants are known to be very variable. In appearance, Inocybe maculata f. fulva has a lighter cap colour (typically more yellow to reddish-brown) and less (or even no) remnants of the veil on the cap. The gill attachment is adnate, meaning that the gills are attached to the stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
along their entire depth. The gills are crowded, with white edges that are finely toothed. Younger mushrooms have gills that are greyish-white that eventually mature to an olive-brown colour. The stem is up to 8 cm (3.1 in) in length, and generally cylindrical in shape, though it is often thicker towards the base. While the stem is initially solid, it later becomes hollow. There is often a small bulb at the base of the stem. The stem has cream colouration, becoming gradually browner with age. The base sometimes white and powdery. The flesh
Trama (mycology)
In mycology trama is a term for the inner, fleshy portion of a mushroom's basidiocarp, or fruit body. It is distinct from the outer layer of tissue, known as the pileipellis or cuticle, and from the spore-bearing tissue layer known as the hymenium....
is white.
Microscopic features
Inocybe maculata has thin-walled cheilocystidia, which are clavate (club-shaped), lack encrustation at the apex, and are colourless. The basidia are also clavate, and can be two-, three- or four-spored, and measure from 15 to 30 micrometreMicrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
s (μm) by 5 to 9 μm. The sterigmata (the narrow horns on the end of the basidia which hold the spores) are 4 to 5 μm long. It lacks pleurocystidia. The species leaves a snuff
Snuff
Snuff is a product made from ground or pulverised tobacco leaves. It is an example of smokeless tobacco. It originated in the Americas and was in common use in Europe by the 17th century...
-brown spore print
Spore print
thumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
. The spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s themselves are smooth and bean
Bean
Bean is a common name for large plant seeds of several genera of the family Fabaceae used for human food or animal feed....
shaped; they have a yellow-brown to rusty brown colouration, and measure from 9 to 11 μm by 4.5 to 5.5 μm. The hyphae can have clamp connections, but can also lack them.
Similar species
Inocybe maculata is similar to the variable Inocybe laceraInocybe lacera
Inocybe lacera is a poisonous species of mushroom in the genus Inocybe. Its appearance is that of a typical "little brown mushroom"; small, brown and indistinct. However, it is distinguishable by its microscopic features, particularly its long, smooth spores...
, the split fibrecap, but it can be differentiated by the darker colouration of the cap, and the white remains of the veil in the centre of the cap. The species is also similar in appearance to Inocybe lanatodisca, but can be readily distinguished by odour (I. lanatodisca has a characteristic sweet, green-corn smell) and the colour of the cap (I. lanatodisca has a fulvous
Fulvous
Fulvous is a colour, sometimes described as dull reddish-yellow, brownish-yellow or tawny, it can also be likened to a variation of buff, beige or butterscotch. As an adjective it is used in the names of many species of birds, and occasionally other animals, to describe their appearance...
cap). It is closely related to Inocybe fastigiata, but can again be distinguished by colour; I. fastigiata has lighter coloured fibrils.
Distribution and habitat
Inocybe maculata is an ectomycorrhizal species, with a wide ecological range. It can be found in all biomeBiome
Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. Some parts of the earth have more or less the same kind of abiotic and biotic factors spread over a...
s from low-lying deciduous woodland to arctic
Arctic
The Arctic is a region located at the northern-most part of the Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Russia, Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The Arctic region consists of a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by treeless permafrost...
-alpine
Alpine climate
Alpine climate is the average weather for a region above the tree line. This climate is also referred to as mountain climate or highland climate....
areas. It typically grows on the ground in deciduous
Deciduous
Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and is typically used in reference to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally, and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe...
(or mixed) woodland, favouring beech
Beech
Beech is a genus of ten species of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America.-Habit:...
. It grows best on chalk
Chalk
Chalk is a soft, white, porous sedimentary rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is calcium carbonate or CaCO3. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite plates shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores....
y soil, among leaf litter. In North America, it favours sandy soil, clay
Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.- Formation :Clay minerals...
or moss
Moss
Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems...
. It is also encountered on pathsides. As well as beech, the species has been recorded growing in association with hornbeam
Hornbeam
Hornbeams are relatively small hardwood trees in the genus Carpinus . Though some botanists grouped them with the hazels and hop-hornbeams in a segregate family, Corylaceae, modern botanists place the hornbeams in the birch subfamily Coryloideae...
, hazel
Hazel
The hazels are a genus of deciduous trees and large shrubs native to the temperate northern hemisphere. The genus is usually placed in the birch family Betulaceae, though some botanists split the hazels into a separate family Corylaceae.They have simple, rounded leaves with double-serrate margins...
, oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
and lime
Tilia
Tilia is a genus of about 30 species of trees native throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The greatest species diversity is found in Asia, and the genus also occurs in Europe and eastern North America, but not western North America...
. Inocybe maculata f. fulva favours birch
Birch
Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...
, spruce
Spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical...
, pine
Pine
Pines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
, Populus, willow
Willow
Willows, sallows, and osiers form the genus Salix, around 400 species of deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere...
, (as well as Dryas
Dryas (plant)
Dryas is a genus of dwarf perennial herbaceous plants in the rose family Rosaceae, native to the arctic and alpine regions of Europe, Asia and North America. The genus is named after the Greek nymph Dryas. The classification of Dryas within the Rosaceae has been unclear...
and Polygonum
Polygonum
Polygonum is a genus in the Polygonaceae family. Common names include knotweed, knotgrass, bistort, tear-thumb, mile-a-minute, and several others. In the Middle English glossary of herbs "Alphita" , it was known as ars-smerte. There have been various opinions about how broadly the genus should be...
in alpine regions). Mushrooms grow individually or in scattered groups. Though widespread in the areas it is found, it is not a common species. It can be found from western Europe to eastern Asia; and in North America, from where it was first collected in the 1960s. Inocybe maculata f. fulva was first identified in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and has since been found elsewhere in Europe.
Edibility
The flesh has a mild taste, and a strong, pungent, fruity smell. The mushroom is poisonous, containing muscarineMuscarine
Muscarine, L--muscarine, or muscarin is a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in Inocybe and Clitocybe species, such as the deadly C. dealbata. Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena have also been found to contain levels of muscarine which can be dangerous if ingested...
compounds. Consumption of the mushroom could lead to a number of physiological effects, including: salivation, lacrimation, urination
Urination
Urination, also known as micturition, voiding, peeing, weeing, pissing, and more rarely, emiction, is the ejection of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. In healthy humans the process of urination is under voluntary control...
, defecation
Defecation
Defecation is the final act of digestion by which organisms eliminate solid, semisolid or liquid waste material from the digestive tract via the anus. Waves of muscular contraction known as peristalsis in the walls of the colon move fecal matter through the digestive tract towards the rectum...
, gastrointestinal problems and emesis (vomiting); this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE. Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. When used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the arterial pressure of the systemic circulation. During each heartbeat, BP varies...
, sweating
Sweating
Perspiration is the production of a fluid consisting primarily of water as well as various dissolved solids , that is excreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals...
and death due to respiratory failure
Respiratory failure
The term respiratory failure, in medicine, is used to describe inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, with the result that arterial oxygen and/or carbon dioxide levels cannot be maintained within their normal ranges. A drop in blood oxygenation is known as hypoxemia; a rise in arterial...
.