Instructional theory
Encyclopedia
An Instructional theory is "a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop." Instructional theories focus on how to structure material for promoting the education of human beings, particularly youth. Originating in the United States
in the late 1970s, instructional theory is typically influenced by three general influences in educational thought: the behaviorist, the cognitive, and the consturctivist schools of thought. Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom
, a University of Chicago
professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process.
One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne
, who in 1965 published Conditions of Learning
for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.
In the context of e-learning
, a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of learning object
s to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone educational animation
is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of learning object
s. At the forefront of the standards groups is the Department of Defense
's Advanced Distributed Learning
initiative with its SCORM
standards. SCORM stands for Shareable Content Object Reference Model.
. A learning theory describes how learning take place, and an instructional theory prescribes how to better help people learn. Learning theories often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence: behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition), and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction).
's theories of behavior were highly influential on many early instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the scientific process.
's work appears to critique instructional approaches that adhere to the knowledge acquisition stance, and his work Pedagogy of the Oppressed has had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship. http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf
Freire explains, "Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to memorize mechanically the narrated content. Worse yet, it turns them into “containers,” into “receptacles” to be “filled” by the teacher. The more completely she fills the receptacles, the better a teacher she is. The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the better students they are." http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf . In this way he explains educator creates an act of depositing knowledge in a student. The student thus becomes a repository of knowledge. Freire explains that this system that diminishes creativity and knowledge suffers. Knowledge, according to Freire, comes about only through the learner by inquiry and pursuing the subjects in the world and through interpersonal interaction.
Freire further states, "In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing. Projecting an
absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the ideology of oppression, negates
education and knowledge as processes of inquiry. The teacher presents himself to his
students as their necessary opposite; by considering their ignorance absolute, he justifies his
own existence. The students, alienated like the slave in the Hegelian dialectic, accept their
ignorance as justifying the teacher’s existence — but, unlike the slave, they never discover
that they educate the teacher."
Freire then offered an alternative stance and wrote, "The raison d'etre of libertarian education, on the other hand, lies in its drive towards reconciliation. Education must begin with the solution of the teacher-student contradiction, by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously teachers and students. " http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
in the late 1970s, instructional theory is typically influenced by three general influences in educational thought: the behaviorist, the cognitive, and the consturctivist schools of thought. Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom
Benjamin Bloom
Benjamin Samuel Bloom was an American educational psychologist who made contributions to the classification of educational objectives and to the theory of mastery-learning...
, a University of Chicago
University of Chicago
The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois, USA. It was founded by the American Baptist Education Society with a donation from oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller and incorporated in 1890...
professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process.
One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne
Robert M. Gagné
Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist best known for his "Conditions of Learning". Gagné pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training...
, who in 1965 published Conditions of Learning
Conditions of Learning
Robert M. Gagne's book Conditions of Learning, originally published in 1965 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, describes eight kinds of learning and nine events of instruction. This theory of learning involved two steps...
for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.
In the context of e-learning
E-learning
E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and communication systems, whether networked learning or not, serve as specific media to implement the learning process...
, a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of learning object
Learning object
A learning object is "a collection of content items, practice items, and assessment items that are combined based on a single learning objective". The term is credited to Wayne Hogins when he created a working group in 1994 bearing the name though the concept was first described by Gerard in 1967...
s to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone educational animation
Educational animation
Educational animations are animations produced for the specific purpose of fostering learning.The popularity of using animations to help learners understand and remember information has greatly increased since the advent of powerful graphics-oriented computers. This technology allows animations to...
is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of learning object
Learning object
A learning object is "a collection of content items, practice items, and assessment items that are combined based on a single learning objective". The term is credited to Wayne Hogins when he created a working group in 1994 bearing the name though the concept was first described by Gerard in 1967...
s. At the forefront of the standards groups is the Department of Defense
United States Department of Defense
The United States Department of Defense is the U.S...
's Advanced Distributed Learning
Advanced Distributed Learning
Advanced Distributed Learning is the product of the ADL Initiative, established in 1997 to standardize and modernize training and education management and delivery. The Department of Defense Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness oversees the ADL Initiative...
initiative with its SCORM
SCORM
Sharable Content Object Reference Model is a collection of standards and specifications for web-based e-learning. It defines communications between client side content and a host system called the run-time environment, which is commonly supported by a learning management system...
standards. SCORM stands for Shareable Content Object Reference Model.
Influence of Learning Theory on Instructional Theory
Instructional theory is different than learning theoryLearning theory
Learning theory may refer to:* Learning theory , the process of how humans learn** Behaviorism** Cognitivism** Constructivism** Connectivism* Computational learning theory, a mathematical theory to analyze machine learning algorithms...
. A learning theory describes how learning take place, and an instructional theory prescribes how to better help people learn. Learning theories often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence: behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition), and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction).
Influence of Behaviorism
Renowned psychologist B. F. SkinnerB. F. Skinner
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was an American behaviorist, author, inventor, baseball enthusiast, social philosopher and poet...
's theories of behavior were highly influential on many early instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the scientific process.
Critiques of Instructional Theory
Paulo FreirePaulo Freire
Paulo Reglus Neves Freire was a Brazilian educator and influential theorist of critical pedagogy.-Biography:...
's work appears to critique instructional approaches that adhere to the knowledge acquisition stance, and his work Pedagogy of the Oppressed has had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship. http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf
Freire explains, "Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to memorize mechanically the narrated content. Worse yet, it turns them into “containers,” into “receptacles” to be “filled” by the teacher. The more completely she fills the receptacles, the better a teacher she is. The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the better students they are." http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf . In this way he explains educator creates an act of depositing knowledge in a student. The student thus becomes a repository of knowledge. Freire explains that this system that diminishes creativity and knowledge suffers. Knowledge, according to Freire, comes about only through the learner by inquiry and pursuing the subjects in the world and through interpersonal interaction.
Freire further states, "In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing. Projecting an
absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the ideology of oppression, negates
education and knowledge as processes of inquiry. The teacher presents himself to his
students as their necessary opposite; by considering their ignorance absolute, he justifies his
own existence. The students, alienated like the slave in the Hegelian dialectic, accept their
ignorance as justifying the teacher’s existence — but, unlike the slave, they never discover
that they educate the teacher."
Freire then offered an alternative stance and wrote, "The raison d'etre of libertarian education, on the other hand, lies in its drive towards reconciliation. Education must begin with the solution of the teacher-student contradiction, by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously teachers and students. " http://www.dsa-atlanta.org/pdf_docs/Macedo_intro_POTO.pdf
See also
- Educational technologyEducational technologyEducational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources." The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and...
- EdupunkEdupunkEdupunk is an approach to teaching and learning practices that result from a do it yourself attitude. The New York Times defines it as "an approach to teaching that avoids mainstream tools like PowerPoint and Blackboard, and instead aims to bring the rebellious attitude and D.I.Y...
- Instructional designInstructional designInstructional Design is the practice of creating "instructional experiences which make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and appealing." The process consists broadly of determining the current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and...
- Instructional technologyInstructional technologyIn education, instructional technology is "the theory and practice ofdesign, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning," according to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology Definitions and Terminology Committee...
- Learning theoryLearning theory (education)In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views . Learning as a process focuses on what...
- Teaching methodTeaching methodA teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction. Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combinations of these...
- Training Within IndustryTraining Within IndustryThe Training Within Industry service was created by the United States Department of War, running from 1940 to 1945 within the War Manpower Commission. The purpose was to provide consulting services to war-related industries whose personnel were being conscripted into the US Army at the same time...
was developed during WWII and is still in use around the world - First Principles of InstructionFirst Principles of InstructionFirst Principles of Instruction, created by M. David Merrill, Professor Emeritus at Utah State University, is an instructional theory based on a broad review of many instructional models and theories...
instructional theory developed by M. David Merrill