Islamic theology
Encyclopedia
Islamic theology is a branch of Islamic studies
regarding the beliefs associated with the Islam
ic faith. Any religious belief system, or creed, can be considered an example of aqidah. However, this term has taken a significant technical usage in Islamic history and theology, denoting those matters over which Muslims hold conviction. Literally, the word `aqidah is derived from the triconsonantal root"`A-Q-D", which means to tie or knot.
Muslim
s enumerate their creed to include the Six articles of belief. There is a consensus on the elements of this creed across all spectrums as they are clearly articulated in the Qurʾān. Sectarian differences between Shi'a and Sunni Islam
are often expressed in differences in branches or elaboration of creedal beliefs as opposed to the core creed (aqidah). For example, Muslims may have different ideas regarding the attributes of God or about the purpose of angels. However there is no dispute on the existence of God, that he has sent his revelation via messengers nor that man will be held to account and rewarded or punished with heaven
or hell.
, the Islamic prophet
Muḥammad
explains, "Faith is to affirm your faith in Allah, His angels, His Books, His Messengers and the Last Day, and to believe in the Divine Destiny whether it be good or bad."
The six Sunni articles of belief are:
The first five are based on several Qurʾānic creeds:
The sixth point made it into the creed because of the first theological controversy in Islām. Although not connected with
the sunni-shiʿi controversy about the succession, the majority of Twelver Shiʿites do not stress God's limitless power (qadar), but rather his boundless justice ʿadl
as the sixth point of belief. This does not mean either that Sunnis deny his justice or that Shiʿites negate his power; it simply reflects a difference in emphasis.
In Sunni and Shi'a view, having Iman
literally means to have belief in Six articles. However the importance of Iman relies heavily upon reasons. Islam explicitly asserts that belief should be maintained in that which can be proven using faculties of perception and conception.
that derived from the Qur'an
and Hadith
. The contents of Muslim theology can be divided into theology proper such as theodicy
, eschatology
, anthropology
, apophatic theology, and comparative religion
.
of seeking theological principles through dialectic
. In Arabic
, the word literally means "speech/words". A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (Muslim theologian; plural mutakallimiin).
is literally understood as the last things or ultimate things and in Muslim theology, eschatology refers to the end of this world and what will happen in the next world or hereafter. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the total destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments
of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers respectively. The places for the believers in the hereafter are known as Paradise
and for the non-believers as Hell
.
, Jewish theologies as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions.
, in four divinely revealed scriptures, in the Day of Judgment or end times, in angels
, and in fate or destiny
.
and Judgement Day. The Shias do not believe in complete predestination, or complete free will. They believe that human life is a mixture of free will and predestination.
The branch of Islam known as the Ismāʻīlī
is the second largest Shia community. They observe the following pillars of Islam:
over predestination and God's justice
over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to deduct the true meanings of the Qur'an
. This, combined with the principal of Ijtihad
, led to their belief in Dynamic Fiqh.
Islamic studies
In a Muslim context, Islamic studies can be an umbrella term for all virtually all of academia, both originally researched and as defined by the Islamization of knowledge...
regarding the beliefs associated with the Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
ic faith. Any religious belief system, or creed, can be considered an example of aqidah. However, this term has taken a significant technical usage in Islamic history and theology, denoting those matters over which Muslims hold conviction. Literally, the word `aqidah is derived from the triconsonantal root"`A-Q-D", which means to tie or knot.
Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
s enumerate their creed to include the Six articles of belief. There is a consensus on the elements of this creed across all spectrums as they are clearly articulated in the Qurʾān. Sectarian differences between Shi'a and Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam. Sunni Muslims are referred to in Arabic as ʾAhl ūs-Sunnah wa āl-Ǧamāʿah or ʾAhl ūs-Sunnah for short; in English, they are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis or Sunnites....
are often expressed in differences in branches or elaboration of creedal beliefs as opposed to the core creed (aqidah). For example, Muslims may have different ideas regarding the attributes of God or about the purpose of angels. However there is no dispute on the existence of God, that he has sent his revelation via messengers nor that man will be held to account and rewarded or punished with heaven
Jannah
Jannah , is the Islamic conception of paradise. The Arabic word Jannah is a shortened version meaning simply "Garden". According to Islamic eschatology, after death, one will reside in the grave until the appointed resurrection on . Muslims believe that the treatment of the individual in the life...
or hell.
Six articles of belief
In the Hadith of GabrielHadith of Gabriel
In Islam, the Hadith of Gabriel is the single most important report on the words and actions of the Prophet Muhammad. Its narrative contains the best summary of the core of Islam: the Five Pillars and the Six...
, the Islamic prophet
Prophets of Islam
Muslims identify the Prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by God and given revelation to deliver to mankind. Muslims believe that every prophet was given a belief to worship God and their respective followers believed it as well...
Muḥammad
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
explains, "Faith is to affirm your faith in Allah, His angels, His Books, His Messengers and the Last Day, and to believe in the Divine Destiny whether it be good or bad."
The six Sunni articles of belief are:
- Belief in God (AllahAllahAllah is a word for God used in the context of Islam. In Arabic, the word means simply "God". It is used primarily by Muslims and Bahá'ís, and often, albeit not exclusively, used by Arabic-speaking Eastern Catholic Christians, Maltese Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Mizrahi Jews and...
), the one and only one worthy of all worship (tawhidTawhidTawhid is the concept of monotheism in Islam. It is the religion's most fundamental concept and holds God is one and unique ....
). - Belief in the Angels (mala'ikaIslamic view of angelsAngels are mentioned many times in the Qur'an and Hadith. Islam is clear on the nature of angels in that they are messengers of God. They have no free will, and can do only what God orders them to do...
). - Belief in the Books (kutubIslamic holy booksIslamic holy books are the texts which Muslims believe were dictated by God to various Islamic prophets throughout the history of mankind. All these books, in Muslim belief, promulgated the code and laws of Islam. Muslims believe the Qur'an, the final holy scripture, was sent because all the...
) sent by Allah (including the Qurʾān, BibleBibleThe Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
and TorahTorahTorah- A scroll containing the first five books of the BibleThe Torah , is name given by Jews to the first five books of the bible—Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus , Numbers and Deuteronomy Torah- A scroll containing the first five books of the BibleThe Torah , is name given by Jews to the first five...
/TanakhTanakhThe Tanakh is a name used in Judaism for the canon of the Hebrew Bible. The Tanakh is also known as the Masoretic Text or the Miqra. The name is an acronym formed from the initial Hebrew letters of the Masoretic Text's three traditional subdivisions: The Torah , Nevi'im and Ketuvim —hence...
). - Belief in all the Messengers (rusul) sent by Allah (including Muhammad, JesusJesusJesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
, MosesMosesMoses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
, AbrahamAbrahamAbraham , whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam...
, NoahNoahNoah was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the tenth and last of the antediluvian Patriarchs. The biblical story of Noah is contained in chapters 6–9 of the book of Genesis, where he saves his family and representatives of all animals from the flood by constructing an ark...
, and AdamAdamAdam is a figure in the Book of Genesis. According to the creation myth of Abrahamic religions, he is the first human. In the Genesis creation narratives, he was created by Yahweh-Elohim , and the first woman, Eve was formed from his rib...
) - Belief in the Day of Judgment (qiyama) and in the Resurrection (life after death).
- Belief in Destiny (Fate) (qadar).
The first five are based on several Qurʾānic creeds:
- Whoever disbelieveth in God and His angels and His scriptures and His messengers and the Last Day, he verily wandered far astray (4:136)
- Who is an enemy of God, His Angels, His Messengers, Gabriel and Michael! Then, lo! God is an enemy to the disbelievers (2:98)
- …righteous is he who believeth in God and the Last Day and the angels and the scripture and the prophets (2:177)
- … believers have believed in God and His angels and His scriptures and His messengers (2:285)
The sixth point made it into the creed because of the first theological controversy in Islām. Although not connected with
the sunni-shiʿi controversy about the succession, the majority of Twelver Shiʿites do not stress God's limitless power (qadar), but rather his boundless justice ʿadl
Adl
ʻAdl is an Arabic word meaning 'justice'. In Islamic theology, ʻadl refers to God's divine justice.Adil, and Adeel are male names derived from ʻadl and are common throughout the Arab world, Pakistan, India and in most regions with significant Muslim populations.- In Islamic jurisprudence :ʻAdl, as...
as the sixth point of belief. This does not mean either that Sunnis deny his justice or that Shiʿites negate his power; it simply reflects a difference in emphasis.
In Sunni and Shi'a view, having Iman
Iman (concept)
Iman is an Arabic term which denotes certitude or adherence to an idea. In Islamic theology, it refers to the inner aspect of the religion, and denotes a believer's faith in the metaphysical realities of Islam. The term Iman has been delineated in both the Quran as well as the famous Hadith of...
literally means to have belief in Six articles. However the importance of Iman relies heavily upon reasons. Islam explicitly asserts that belief should be maintained in that which can be proven using faculties of perception and conception.
Proof aspect
One is required to examine the evidences Islam provides to be convinced to the point of having no doubt. This is indicated in the Arabic word for verse (i.e. verses of Koran) which translates to mean the following: sign, miracle, proof, etc. After all, this lays the foundation for acting on the secondary matters which would be the rights and regulations of Islam. So a believer is not supposed to be in the position of relying only on faith as there are verses of the Koran that condemn blind following, questioning its integrity.Types of theology
Muslim theology is the theologyTheology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
that derived from the Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
and Hadith
Hadith
The term Hadīth is used to denote a saying or an act or tacit approval or criticism ascribed either validly or invalidly to the Islamic prophet Muhammad....
. The contents of Muslim theology can be divided into theology proper such as theodicy
Theodicy
Theodicy is a theological and philosophical study which attempts to prove God's intrinsic or foundational nature of omnibenevolence , omniscience , and omnipotence . Theodicy is usually concerned with the God of the Abrahamic religions Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, due to the relevant...
, eschatology
Eschatology
Eschatology is a part of theology, philosophy, and futurology concerned with what are believed to be the final events in history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world or the World to Come...
, anthropology
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
, apophatic theology, and comparative religion
Comparative religion
Comparative religion is a field of religious studies that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world's religions...
.
Kalam
Kalam is the Islamic philosophyIslamic philosophy
Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies. It is the continuous search for Hekma in the light of Islamic view of life, universe, ethics, society, and so on...
of seeking theological principles through dialectic
Dialectic
Dialectic is a method of argument for resolving disagreement that has been central to Indic and European philosophy since antiquity. The word dialectic originated in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato in the Socratic dialogues...
. In Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
, the word literally means "speech/words". A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (Muslim theologian; plural mutakallimiin).
Eschatology
EschatologyEschatology
Eschatology is a part of theology, philosophy, and futurology concerned with what are believed to be the final events in history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity, commonly referred to as the end of the world or the World to Come...
is literally understood as the last things or ultimate things and in Muslim theology, eschatology refers to the end of this world and what will happen in the next world or hereafter. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the total destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments
End times
The end time, end times, or end of days is a time period described in the eschatological writings in the three Abrahamic religions and in doomsday scenarios in various other non-Abrahamic religions...
of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers respectively. The places for the believers in the hereafter are known as Paradise
Paradise
Paradise is a place in which existence is positive, harmonious and timeless. It is conceptually a counter-image of the miseries of human civilization, and in paradise there is only peace, prosperity, and happiness. Paradise is a place of contentment, but it is not necessarily a land of luxury and...
and for the non-believers as Hell
Hell
In many religious traditions, a hell is a place of suffering and punishment in the afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hells as endless. Religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations...
.
Comparative religion
Comparative religion in Muslim theology is about the differences and similarities between Muslim theology and other theologies such as ChristianChristian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
, Jewish theologies as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions.
Differences between various Muslim groups
In the history of Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims displaying both similarities and differences with each other in regard to beliefs.Sunni view
Sunni Muslims hold that there are six articles of belief: belief in Allah, in ProphetsProphets of Islam
Muslims identify the Prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by God and given revelation to deliver to mankind. Muslims believe that every prophet was given a belief to worship God and their respective followers believed it as well...
, in four divinely revealed scriptures, in the Day of Judgment or end times, in angels
Islamic view of angels
Angels are mentioned many times in the Qur'an and Hadith. Islam is clear on the nature of angels in that they are messengers of God. They have no free will, and can do only what God orders them to do...
, and in fate or destiny
Predestination in Islam
Qadar is divine destiny in Islam. More precisely, Qadar relates to the Knowledge and Omniscience of God about all events. Linguistically, Qadar means "measure", and when used in relation to God, means His exact knowledge of all events...
.
Shia beliefs and practices
Shia Muslims hold that there are five articles of belief: the Divine Oneness and Justice, the Prophethood, the ImamateImamate
The word Imamate is an Arabic word with an English language suffix meaning leadership. Its use in theology is confined to Islam.-Theological usage:...
and Judgement Day. The Shias do not believe in complete predestination, or complete free will. They believe that human life is a mixture of free will and predestination.
Roots of Religion (Usūl ad-Dīn)
- TawhīdTawhidTawhid is the concept of monotheism in Islam. It is the religion's most fundamental concept and holds God is one and unique ....
(Oneness): The Oneness of Allah. - AdalahAdalahAdalah means justice and denotes The Justice of God. It is among the five Shia Principles of the Religion.The Shias believe that there is intrinsic good or evil in things, and that God commands them to do the good things and shun the evil...
(Justice): The Justice of Allah. - NubuwwahNubuwwahIn Islam, Nubuwwah means "Prophethood" and denotes that God has appointed perfect Prophets and Messengers to teach mankind Gods religion. Nubuwwah is among the five Shi'a Roots of Religion....
(Prophethood): Allah has appointed perfect and infallible prophets and messengers to teach mankind the religion (i.e. a perfect system on how to live in "peace".) - Imamah (Leadership): God has appointed specific leaders to lead and guide mankind — a prophet appoints a custodian of the religion before his demise.
- QiyamahQiyamahIn Islam, Yawm al-Qiyāmah or Yawm ad-Din is believed to be God's final assessment of humanity as it exists. The sequence of events is the annihilation of all creatures allowable, resurrection of the body, and the judgment of all sentient creatures.The exact time when these events are to occur...
(The Day of Judgment): Allah will raise mankind for Judgement
Branches of Religion (Furū ad-Dīn)
- SalatSalatSalah is the practice of formal prayer in Islam. Its importance for Muslims is indicated by its status as one of the Five Pillars of Sunni Islam, of the Ten Practices of the Religion of Twelver Islam and of the 7 pillars of Musta'lī Ismailis...
(Worship) – The 5 daily prayers. - SawmSawmSawm is an Arabic word for fasting regulated by Islamic jurisprudence. In the terminology of Islamic law, Sawm means to abstain from eating, drinking , having sex and anything against Islamic law...
(Fast) – Fasting during the month of Ramadan. - ZakatZakatZakāt , one of the Five Pillars of Islam, is the giving of a fixed portion of one's wealth to charity, generally to the poor and needy.-History:Zakat, a practice initiated by Muhammed himself, has played an important role throughout Islamic history...
(Poor-rate) – Paying the poor-due. - HajjHajjThe Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is one of the largest pilgrimages in the world, and is the fifth pillar of Islam, a religious duty that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so...
(Pilgrimage) – Undertaking the pilgrimage to Mecca. - KhumsKhumsKhums is the Arabic word for One Fifth . According to Shia Islamic legal terminology, it means "one-fifth of certain items which a person acquires as wealth, and which must be paid as an Islamic tax"....
[Shia ONLY] (20% of savings of which the first half (Sihmu 'l-Imam) must be given to the Imam of Ahlul-Bayt or his representatives ) - JihadJihadJihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is...
(Struggle/Striving) – Struggling to earn the favor of God. The greater jihad, "al-Jihad al-Akbar", is the struggle against the evil within one's own soul. The lesser jihad, "al-Jihad al-Asghar", is where one fights on the battlefield in defence of his religion when attacked. - Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf (Promotion) – Encouraging people to perform good deeds.
- Nahi-Anil-Munkar (Dissuasion) – Discouraging people from performing sin.
- TawalláTawallaTawallá "Loving the Ahl al-Bayt" , is a part of the Twelver Shī‘ah Islām Aspects of the Religion and is derived from a Qur'anic verse.Furthermore, the Sunni and Shī‘ah Hadith of the Event of the Cloak is used to define who is Muḥammad's near relatives....
(Love) - To love Muhammad and his Ahl al-Bayt - Tabarrā'TabarraTabarra is a Shia Muslim doctrine that refers to the obligation of disassociation with those who oppose God and those who caused harm to and were the enemies of the Prophet Muhammad or his family.- Definition :...
(Disassociation) - To disassociate from the enemies of God, his Messengers and his Ahl al-Bayt
Ismaili beliefs
The branch of Islam known as the Ismāʻīlī
Ismaili
' is a branch of Shia Islam. It is the second largest branch of Shia Islam, after the Twelvers...
is the second largest Shia community. They observe the following pillars of Islam:
- Tawhīd
- ImāmahImamah (Shi'a Ismaili doctrine)The Ismaili view on the Imamah differs from the Twelver Shi'a view, in particular because the Imam in Ismailism is the Noor of God . Ismailis believe that the Noor of God is present in the Imam, and that there is only a Ẓāhirī difference between each one...
- NubuwwahNubuwwahIn Islam, Nubuwwah means "Prophethood" and denotes that God has appointed perfect Prophets and Messengers to teach mankind Gods religion. Nubuwwah is among the five Shi'a Roots of Religion....
- Qiyāmah
- Ṣalāt
Mu`tazilite view
In terms of the relationship between human beings and their creator, Mu`tazilites emphasize human free willFree will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
over predestination and God's justice
Justice
Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, or equity, along with the punishment of the breach of said ethics; justice is the act of being just and/or fair.-Concept of justice:...
over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to deduct the true meanings of the Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
. This, combined with the principal of Ijtihad
Ijtihad
Ijtihad is the making of a decision in Islamic law by personal effort , independently of any school of jurisprudence . as opposed to taqlid, copying or obeying without question....
, led to their belief in Dynamic Fiqh.
Literature pertaining to creed
Many Muslim scholars have attempted to explain Islamic creed in general, or specific aspects of aqidah. The following list contains some of the most well-known literature.Sunni literature
- Aqeedah at-Tahawiyya or "The Fundamentals of Islamic Creed by Imam Tahawi. Has been accepted by almost all Sunni Muslims (AthariAthariAthari , or "textualism" is derived from the Arabic word athar, literally meaning "remnant", and also referring to "narrations". Their disciples are called the Atharis...
s, Ash'ariAsh'ariThe Ashʿari theology is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari...
s, MaturidiMaturidiIn Islam, a Maturidi is one who follows Abu Mansur Al Maturidi's theology, which is a close variant of the Ash'ari theology . The Maturidis, Ash'aris and Atharis are all part of Sunni Islam, which makes up the overwhelming majority of Muslims...
s). A well-known explaination exists by Ibn Abu al-IzIbn Abu al-IzʻAlī ibn ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn ʻAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī al-ʻIzz , commonly known as Ibn Abī al-ʻIzz. He was a jurist of the Hanafi school and was nicknamed Qāḍī al-Quḍāh .-Biography:...
, however, his commentary and that by the late Saudi Mufti Abdullah Ibn Baz, have often been considered as unorthodox due to their emphasis on anthropomorphism. Several mainstream Sunni scholars have written about the Tahawiyya creed, including a commentary by Ibn al-Seraj al-Dimashqi al-Hanafi called Al-Qala'id fi Sharh il-'Aqa'id - Aqeedah al-Waasittiyah by Ibn TaymiyaIbn TaymiyaTaqi ad-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah , full name: Taqī ad-Dīn Abu 'l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd as-Salām Ibn Taymiya al-Ḥarrānī , was an Islamic scholar , theologian and logician born in Harran, located in what is now Turkey, close to the Syrian border. He lived during the troubled times of...
. - Sharh as Sunnah or the Explanation of the Creed by Al-BarbahaareeAl-BarbahaareeAl-Ḥasan ibn ʻAlī al-Barbahārī was a Sunni Islamic theologian from Iraq. His books are peppered with stinging remarks that place the Shias, Qadaris, Mu'tazilis and Asharis in an extremely negative light. His concern for preserving the sunnah led him to become increasingly outspoken in his later...
. Lists approximately 170 points pertaining to the fundamentals of Aqidah. - Khalq Af'aal al-Ibad (The Creation of the acts of Servants) by BukhariMuhammad al-BukhariMuhammad Ibn Ismail Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Mughirah Ibn Bardizbah al-Bukhari , popularly known as Bukhari or Imam Bukhari, , was a Sunni Islamic scholar of Persia...
. It shows the opinion of early scholars (SalafSalafA Salaf is an early Muslim of the first three generations of proponents of the religion.-First generation:* See: List of SahabaThe Salaf are the first generation of Muslims, which included Muhammad's companions and followers at the time....
) but it does not cover all topics. - Ulu by al-DhahabiAl-DhahabiMuhammad ibn Ahmad ibn `Uthman ibn Qaymaz ibn `Abd Allah, Shams al-Din Abu `Abd Allah al-Turkmani al-Diyarbakri al-Fariqi al-Dimashqi al-Dhahabi al-Shafi`i , known as Al-Dhahabi , a Shafi'i Muhaddith and historian of Islam.-Biography:...
. Details the opinions of early scholars. - Ibaanah by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ariAbu al-Hasan al-Ash'ariAbū al-Hasan Alī ibn Ismā'īl al-Ash'arī was a Muslim Arab theologian and the founder of the Ash'ari school of early Islamic philosophy and Islamic theology.-Biography:...
. Accepted by AthariAthariAthari , or "textualism" is derived from the Arabic word athar, literally meaning "remnant", and also referring to "narrations". Their disciples are called the Atharis...
s and early Ash'ariAsh'ariThe Ashʿari theology is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari...
s. - Incoherence of the Philosophers by Imam al-GhazaliAl-GhazaliAbu Hāmed Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzālī , known as Algazel to the western medieval world, born and died in Tus, in the Khorasan province of Persia was a Persian Muslim theologian, jurist, philosopher, and mystic....
. An Ash'ari refutation of Greek philisophy.
Shia literature
- Shi'a Muḥammad Ḥusayn al-ṬabāṭabāʼīAllameh TabatabaeiAllameh Seyyed Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei was one of the most prominent thinkers of philosophy and contemporary Shia Islam...
: translated by Hossein Nasr - Root and Branches of Faith by Maqbul Hussein Rahim
- Shi'ism Doctrines, Thought and Spirituality by Hossein Nasr
External links
- Six Articles of Islamic Faith A description of the Six Articles of Islamic faith.
- Exhaustive Books & Articles on Aqeedah