Jaffna
Encyclopedia
Jaffna is the capital city of the Northern Province, Sri Lanka
. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jaffna district
located on a peninsula of the same name
. Jaffna is approximately six miles away from Kandarodai which served as a famous emporium
in the Jaffna peninsula
from classical antiquity
. Jaffna's suburb, Nallur
served as the capital of the four centuries-long medieval Jaffna kingdom
. Prior to the Sri Lankan civil war
, it was Sri Lanka's second most populated city after the commercial capital Colombo
. Since the 1980s insurgent uprising, military occupation, extensive damage, expulsion and depopulation has happened. Since the end of civil war in 2009, refugees and internally displaced people are returning to their homes and government and private sector reconstruction has begun.
Historically, Jaffna has been a contested city. It was made into a colonial port town during the Portuguese occupation of the Jaffna peninsula in 1619. It changed hands to the Dutch colonials, who lost it to the British
in 1796. After Sri Lanka gained independence 1948, the political relationship between the minority Sri Lankan Tamils and majority Sinhalese
worsened and after the Black July
pogrom, civil war erupted
in 1983. Jaffna was occupied by the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
(LTTE) in 1986 and from 1989 until 1995. Indian Peace Keeping Force
(IPKF) briefly occupied the city in 1987. The Sri Lankan military
gained control in 1995.
Majority of the city’s population are Sri Lankan Tamils, although there was a significant number of Sri Lankan Moors
, Indian Tamils and other ethnic groups present in the city prior to the civil war. Most Sri Lankan Tamils are Hindus followed by Christians, Muslims and a small Buddhist minority. The city is home to number of educational institutions established during the colonial and post-colonial period. It also has number of commercial institutions, minor industrial units, banks, hotels and other government institutions such as the hospital
. It is home to the popular Jaffna library that was burnt down and rebuilt
. The city is anchored by the Jaffna fort
rebuilt during the Dutch colonial period.
in 1619, the capital of the local Jaffna Kingdom
, also known as the Kingdom of the Aryacakravarti was Nallur
. Nallur is close to the city limits of Jaffna. The capital city was known in royal inscriptions
and chronicles as Cinkainakar and in other sources as Yalpaanam in Tamil
and Yapaapatuna in Sinhalese.
captured the last native king Cankili II
. Phillipe de Oliveira moved the center of political and military control from Nallur to Jaffnapatao (variously spelt as Jaffnapattan or Jaffnapattam), the Portuguese rendition of the native name for the former Royal capital. Jaffnapatao was attacked number of times by a local rebel Migapulle Arachchi
and his allied Thanjavur Nayakar expeditionary forces but the Portuguese defense of the city withstood the attacks. Jaffnapatao was a small town. It had a fort, a harbor and Catholic
chapels and other government buildings. Portuguese merchants took over the lucrative trade of Elephants from the interior and monopolized the import of goods from Colombo
and India
thus disfranchising the local merchants. Portuguese period was a time of population movement to the Vannimai
s in the south, religious change and as well as introduction of many Europe
an educational and health care methods to the city.
In 1658, Portuguese lost Jaffapatao to the Dutch East India Company
(VOC) after a three month siege. During the Dutch occupation, the city grew in population and size. Dutch were also tolerant towards native mercantile and religious activities. Most Hindu temples that were destroyed by the Portuguese were rebuilt. A community of mixed Eurasian
Dutch Burghers
formed and became part of the city during this period. The Dutch expanded rebuilt the fort considerably, built notable Presbyterian churches and other government buildings most which survived until the 1980s and were destroyed or damaged during the Civil war. During the Dutch period, Jaffna also became prominent as a trading town in locally grown agricultural products with the native merchants and farmers profiting as much as the VOC merchants. Great Britain took over Dutch possessions in Sri Lankan from 1796. Britain maintained many of the Dutch mercantile, tolerant religious and taxation policies. During the British colonial period, almost all the schools that eventually played role in the high literacy achievement of the Jaffna residents were built by missionaries belonging to American Ceylon Mission
, Weslyan Methodist Mission
, Saivite reformer Arumuka Navalar
and others. All the major roads and railway line connecting the city with Colombo, Kandy
and the rest of the country were built. Under the British, Jaffna enjoyed a period of rapid growth and prosperity. The excess wealth of the citizens of the city was directed towards building civic projects like temples, schools, library and the museum.
, the relationship between majority Sinhalese and minority Tamils worsened
. Residents of Jaffna city along with the rest of Tamil population of Sri Lanka were in the fore front of the political mobilization behind Tamil nationalist
parties. After the Tamil conference incident
in 1974, the then mayor of Jaffna Alfred Duraiappah
was assassinated by the leader of rebel LTTE, Velupillai Prabhakaran
in 1975. Following further deterioration of political discourse, the Jaffna library was burnt down in 1981 by Police
and other miscreants. Failure of the political class to find an adequate compromise led to full scale civil war starting in 1983 soon after the Black July pogrom. Sri Lankan military and police were using the Dutch era fort as their encampment which was surrounded by various Tamil militants
groups. Bombardment from air and land of the city led to damage to civic and civilian properties, death and injury to civilians and destruction the economic potential of the city. In 1986, the Sri Lankan military withdrew from the city and it came under the full control of the LTTE.
In 1987, the Indian forces brought to Sri Lanka under the auspicious Indo- Sri Lankan peace accord
led an operation to take the city from the rebels
. It led to incidents like the Jaffna university hellidrop
and Jaffna hospital massacre
in which patients and medical workers were killed by the Indian Army
. More than 200 civilians were also killed during attempt to take the city over by the IPKF. After the departure of the Indians, the city came under the control LTTE once more, but were ousted in 1995
after a 50 day siege. The economic embargo of the rebel controlled territories in general also had a negative impact in Jaffna including lack of power, critical medicines and food. During the period of LTTE occupation, all Muslim residents were expelled in 1990 and forced evacuated all residents in 1995. Since the end of civil war in 2009, refugees have begun to return and visible reconstruction has taken place. The Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora
and business interests from Colombo has invested in commercial enterprises. Countries in Europe, US and India have shown an interest in investing in infrastructure projects and other economic activities.
governs the City of Jaffna. It was established under the Municipalities Ordinance Act of 1865. Although other cities such as Kandy
, Galle
and Colombo had elected municipal councils soon after the 1865 ordinance, Jaffna did not have an elected municipal council for many years. This reflected the desire of the British bureaucrats to govern the city directly rather than share power with a highly literate electorate. The first elected mayor was Cathiravelu Ponnambalam. Number of subsequent mayors were assassinated such as Alfred Duraiappah
, Sarojini Yogeswaran
and Pon Sivapalan
. There were 15 years without elections since 1983.
The post civil war elections
were held in 2009 after a gap of 11 year. The municipal council consists of 29 members. As the original municipal council building was destroyed during the civil war, a new building is to be constructed for the current municipal council in 2011.
to its west and south, Kokkuvil
and Thirunelveli
to the north, and Nallur to the east. Jaffna peninsula is made of limestone as it was submerged under sea during the Miocene period. The limestone is gray, yellow and white porous type. The entire land mass is flat and lies at sea level
. Within one mile of the city center is the island of Mandativu
which is connected by a causway. Palmyrah groves can be seen where land has not been used for construction. Other notable vegetation is a leafless shrub called talai (alae africana) and koddanai (oleander
).
Jaffna features a tropical rainforest climate
with no true dry season
month. Jaffna has the highest average temperature in Sri Lanka - 83°F (28°C). The temperature is highest in the months of April - May and August – September. The temperature is coolest in December – January. The annual rainfall is brought in by the North East monsoon
and it varies from one place to the other and also from year to year. The average rainfall is 50 inches in the western part of Jaffna peninsula.
source: Weatherbase
During colonial times Jaffna was Ceylon's (Sri Lanka) second largest city. Post-independence the city was overtaken by the growth of settlements near Colombo. But even in 1981 Jaffna was the largest city outside the Greater Colombo area. The population of Jaffna, like the rest of the North
and East
, has been heavily affected by the civil war. Many of its Tamil residents have emigrated
to the West
or moved to the relative safety of Colombo
. The city's small Moor and Sinhalese population have either been forcibly expelled or fled. As a consequence the city's population is significantly lower than it was 30 years ago. Many of the city's residents who left during the civil war have settled down elsewhere and are unlikely to return. There have been reports, particularly after the end of the civil war in 2009, about resettling those residents who wish to return to Jaffna but there hasn't been any substantive effort to do so yet.
Historic Population of Jaffna 1880 to 2010
, the successor organization of American Ceylon Mission and other colonial era Protestant churches. All Moors were Muslims with the Sunni sect predominating with a small number of Shias prevalent amongst mercantile immigrants from North India
or Pakistan
. There is a small community of Tamil Buddhists who converted to Theravada Buddhism during the 20th century due to the efforts of Maha Bodhi Society
. Most Sinhalese were either Buddhists or Catholics.
There was a small community of nomadic wanderers
known as Kuravar who visited Jaffna seasonally and spoke a dialect of Telugu
or Tamil. Tamils were also divided along the caste system but as an urban area class was more important than caste which was more pronounced in rural areas of Jaffna district.
processing, but most ceased after 1995. Since then, most industrialists, entrepreneurs, and business people have relocated to the rest of Sri Lanka and abroad. After 2009, foreign governments within the EU, US, India, and investors from the south of the island and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora have shown an interest in making investments in Jaffna district in general and Jaffna city in particular.
Jaffna is 396 km from Colombo. It is directly connected by railways
and the roads system, both of which were disrupted during the civil war. The city was served by the Yal Devi
train service until 1990. The A-9 highway connecting the city with the rest of the country was opened after the 2002 ceasefire. It is served by government and private sector coaches and buses. Commercial flights are available from Colombo to Jaffna via the Palali Airport.
a Wesleyan Missionary
started several schools in Jaffna city including Jaffna Central College
and Vembadi Girls’ High School
. Prior to the civil war, the city had one of the highest literacy rates within Sri Lanka.
and the Weslyan church. In 1863 the Ceylon Patriot was published by a local advocate as a weekly. The Jaffna Catholic Guardian and the Hindu Organ were published by Roman Catholic and Hindu organization to present their religious interests between 1876 and 1889 respectively. The first Tamil monthly was Sanmarkapothini which was published in 1884.
These early journals were followed by number popular newspapers in Tamil such as Eelakesari and Eelanadu. Jaffna was also the seen the publication of journals committed to the growth of modernistic and socially purposive literature such as Bharati and Marumalarchi in 1946. Now defunct English weekly Saturday Review was an influential news magazine that came out of Jaffna. During the civil war many publishers, authors and journalists were assassinated or arrested and the media heavily censored. Since the 2000s Jaffna is served by newspapers such as Uthayan
, Yarl Thinakkural, Valampurii and Thinamurasu.
style clock tower and the Public library that are notable. Almost all Hindu temples in Jaffna including the socially important Nallur Kandaswamy temple were reconstructed during the Dutch and British period.
Northern Province, Sri Lanka
The Northern Province is one of the 9 provinces of Sri Lanka. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. Between 1988 and 2006 the province was...
. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jaffna district
Jaffna District
Jaffna district is one of the 25 administrative districts of Sri Lanka. The district is administered by a District Secretariat headed by a District Secretary appointed by the central government of Sri Lanka. The headquarters is located in Jaffna city. Parts of the district were transferred to...
located on a peninsula of the same name
Jaffna Peninsula
The Jaffna Peninsula is an area in Northern Province, Sri Lanka. It is home to the capital city of the province, Jaffna and comprises much of the former land mass of the ancient Tamil kingdoms of the Nagas and the medieval Jaffna kingdom. The peninsula is mostly surrounded by water, connected to...
. Jaffna is approximately six miles away from Kandarodai which served as a famous emporium
Marketplace
A marketplace is the space, actual, virtual or metaphorical, in which a market operates. The term is also used in a trademark law context to denote the actual consumer environment, ie. the 'real world' in which products and services are provided and consumed.-Marketplaces and street markets:A...
in the Jaffna peninsula
Jaffna Peninsula
The Jaffna Peninsula is an area in Northern Province, Sri Lanka. It is home to the capital city of the province, Jaffna and comprises much of the former land mass of the ancient Tamil kingdoms of the Nagas and the medieval Jaffna kingdom. The peninsula is mostly surrounded by water, connected to...
from classical antiquity
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world...
. Jaffna's suburb, Nallur
Nallur
Nallur is a panchayat town in Kanniyakumari district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.-Geography:Nallur is located at . It has an average elevation of 15 metres .-Demographics:...
served as the capital of the four centuries-long medieval Jaffna kingdom
Jaffna Kingdom
The Jaffna kingdom , also known as Kingdom of Aryacakravarti, of modern northern Sri Lanka was a historic monarchy that came into existence around the town of Jaffna on the Jaffna peninsula after the invasion of Magha, who is said to have been from Kalinga, in India...
. Prior to the Sri Lankan civil war
Sri Lankan civil war
The Sri Lankan Civil War was a conflict fought on the island of Sri Lanka. Beginning on July 23, 1983, there was an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , a separatist militant organization which fought to create an independent Tamil state named Tamil...
, it was Sri Lanka's second most populated city after the commercial capital Colombo
Colombo
Colombo is the largest city of Sri Lanka. It is located on the west coast of the island and adjacent to Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte, the capital of Sri Lanka. Colombo is often referred to as the capital of the country, since Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte is a satellite city of Colombo...
. Since the 1980s insurgent uprising, military occupation, extensive damage, expulsion and depopulation has happened. Since the end of civil war in 2009, refugees and internally displaced people are returning to their homes and government and private sector reconstruction has begun.
Historically, Jaffna has been a contested city. It was made into a colonial port town during the Portuguese occupation of the Jaffna peninsula in 1619. It changed hands to the Dutch colonials, who lost it to the British
British Ceylon
British Ceylon refers to British rule prior to 1948 of the island territory now known as Sri Lanka.-From the Dutch to the British:Before the beginning of the Dutch governance, the island of Ceylon was divided between the Portuguese Empire and the Kingdom of Kandy, who were in the midst of a war for...
in 1796. After Sri Lanka gained independence 1948, the political relationship between the minority Sri Lankan Tamils and majority Sinhalese
Sinhalese people
The Sinhalese are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group,forming the majority of Sri Lanka,constituting 74% of the Sri Lankan population.They number approximately 15 million worldwide.The Sinhalese identity is based on language, heritage and religion. The Sinhalese speak Sinhala, an Indo-Aryan language and the...
worsened and after the Black July
Black July
Black July is the commonly used name for the anti-Tamil pogrom and attacks carried out by mobs in Sri Lanka which began on July 23, 1983. The riots occurred following a deadly ambush by a Tamil militant organization known as Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam which killed 13 Sri Lanka Army soldiers...
pogrom, civil war erupted
Sri Lankan civil war
The Sri Lankan Civil War was a conflict fought on the island of Sri Lanka. Beginning on July 23, 1983, there was an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , a separatist militant organization which fought to create an independent Tamil state named Tamil...
in 1983. Jaffna was occupied by the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam was a separatist militant organization formerly based in northern Sri Lanka. Founded in May 1976 by Vellupillai Prabhakaran, it waged a violent secessionist and nationalist campaign to create an independent state in the north and east of Sri Lanka for Tamil...
(LTTE) in 1986 and from 1989 until 1995. Indian Peace Keeping Force
Indian Peace Keeping Force
Indian Peace Keeping Force was the Indian military contingent performing a peacekeeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990...
(IPKF) briefly occupied the city in 1987. The Sri Lankan military
Sri Lankan Army
The Sri Lanka Army is the oldest and largest of the Sri Lanka Armed Forces and is responsible for land-based military and humanitarian operations. Established as the Ceylon Army in 1949, it was renamed when Sri Lanka became a republic in 1972...
gained control in 1995.
Majority of the city’s population are Sri Lankan Tamils, although there was a significant number of Sri Lankan Moors
Sri Lankan Moors
The Sri Lankan Moors are the third largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka comprising 8% of the country's total population . They are predominantly followers of Islam. The Moors trace their ancestry to Arab traders who settled in Sri Lanka some time between the 8th and 15th centuries...
, Indian Tamils and other ethnic groups present in the city prior to the civil war. Most Sri Lankan Tamils are Hindus followed by Christians, Muslims and a small Buddhist minority. The city is home to number of educational institutions established during the colonial and post-colonial period. It also has number of commercial institutions, minor industrial units, banks, hotels and other government institutions such as the hospital
Jaffna Teaching Hospital
Jaffna Teaching Hospital is a government hospital in Jaffna, Sri Lanka. It is the leading hospital in the Northern Province and the only hospital in the province controlled by the central government in Colombo. The hospital is the only teaching hospital in the Northern Province. The hospital is the...
. It is home to the popular Jaffna library that was burnt down and rebuilt
Burning of Jaffna library
The burning of the Jaffna library was an important event in the Sri Lankan civil war. An organized mob went on a rampage on the nights of May 31 to June 2, 1981, burning the Jaffna public library. It was one of the most violent examples of ethnic biblioclasm of the twentieth century...
. The city is anchored by the Jaffna fort
Jaffna Fort
Jaffna Fort is a fort built by Portuguese at Jaffna, Sri Lanka in 1618 under Philip De Olivera when the Portuguese invaded Jaffna. This was captured by the Dutch under Raiclop Van Goins in 1658 and expanded it. In 1795 it was taken over by the British, and remained a British garrison till 1948...
rebuilt during the Dutch colonial period.
History
Prior to the military capitulation to the Portuguese EmpirePortuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire , also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire or the Portuguese Colonial Empire , was the first global empire in history...
in 1619, the capital of the local Jaffna Kingdom
Jaffna Kingdom
The Jaffna kingdom , also known as Kingdom of Aryacakravarti, of modern northern Sri Lanka was a historic monarchy that came into existence around the town of Jaffna on the Jaffna peninsula after the invasion of Magha, who is said to have been from Kalinga, in India...
, also known as the Kingdom of the Aryacakravarti was Nallur
Nallur (Jaffna)
Nallur , , is a small holy town within the present day city of Jaffna, Sri Lanka. It is located 3 km away from the colour and bustle of Jaffna Town. Originally known by its Royal term "Singai Nagar", Nallur formerly functioned as the capital of the ancient Jaffna kingdom for many years during...
. Nallur is close to the city limits of Jaffna. The capital city was known in royal inscriptions
Kotagama inscriptions
The Kotagama inscriptions found in Kegalle District in Sri Lanka is a record of victory left by the Aryacakravarti kings of the Jaffna Kingdom in western Sri Lanka.The inscription reads;...
and chronicles as Cinkainakar and in other sources as Yalpaanam in Tamil
Tamil language
Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in the Indian union territory of Pondicherry. Tamil is also an official language of Sri Lanka and Singapore...
and Yapaapatuna in Sinhalese.
Colonial history
From 1590, Portuguese merchants and Catholic missionaries were active within the Jaffna kingdom. Impetus for a permanent fortified settlement happened only after 1619, when the expeditionary forces of the Portuguese Empire led by Phillippe de OliveiraPhillippe de Oliveira
Phillippe de Oliveira or Filipe de Oliveira was the conqueror of the Jaffna Kingdom in northern modern day Sri Lanka on behalf of the Portuguese Empire in 1619. He stayed behind as the captain-major of the conquered kingdom until his death in 1627...
captured the last native king Cankili II
Cankili II
Cankili II was the self-proclaimed last king of the Jaffna kingdom and was a usurper who came to throne with a palace massacre of the royal princess and the regent Arasakesari in 1617. His regency was rejected by the Portuguese colonials in Colombo, Sri Lanka...
. Phillipe de Oliveira moved the center of political and military control from Nallur to Jaffnapatao (variously spelt as Jaffnapattan or Jaffnapattam), the Portuguese rendition of the native name for the former Royal capital. Jaffnapatao was attacked number of times by a local rebel Migapulle Arachchi
Migapulle Arachchi
Migapulle Arachchi also Dom Luis Migapulle Arachchi or Chinna Migapillai was a rebel leader from the Jaffna Kingdom just after its annexation by the Portuguese Empire in 1619. Initially he began as a pro-Portuguese feudal lord who opposed the usurper Cankili II but after Cankili's defeat he...
and his allied Thanjavur Nayakar expeditionary forces but the Portuguese defense of the city withstood the attacks. Jaffnapatao was a small town. It had a fort, a harbor and Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
chapels and other government buildings. Portuguese merchants took over the lucrative trade of Elephants from the interior and monopolized the import of goods from Colombo
Colombo
Colombo is the largest city of Sri Lanka. It is located on the west coast of the island and adjacent to Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte, the capital of Sri Lanka. Colombo is often referred to as the capital of the country, since Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte is a satellite city of Colombo...
and India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
thus disfranchising the local merchants. Portuguese period was a time of population movement to the Vannimai
Vannimai
The Vannimais, or Vanni chieftaincies, were feudal land divisions ruled by petty chiefs south of the Jaffna peninsula in the present-day Northern, North Central and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka. These chieftaincies arose in the 12th century, with the rise of the medieval Tamil kingdom's golden...
s in the south, religious change and as well as introduction of many Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an educational and health care methods to the city.
In 1658, Portuguese lost Jaffapatao to the Dutch East India Company
Dutch East India Company
The Dutch East India Company was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia...
(VOC) after a three month siege. During the Dutch occupation, the city grew in population and size. Dutch were also tolerant towards native mercantile and religious activities. Most Hindu temples that were destroyed by the Portuguese were rebuilt. A community of mixed Eurasian
Eurasian (mixed ancestry)
The word Eurasian refers to people of mixed Asian and European ancestry. It was originally coined in 19th-century British India to refer to Anglo-Indians of mixed British and Indian descent....
Dutch Burghers
Burgher people
The Burghers are a Eurasian ethnic group, historically from Sri Lanka, consisting for the most part of male-line descendants of European colonists from the 16th to 20th centuries and local women, with some minorities of Swedish, Norwegian, French and Irish.Today the mother tongue of the Burghers...
formed and became part of the city during this period. The Dutch expanded rebuilt the fort considerably, built notable Presbyterian churches and other government buildings most which survived until the 1980s and were destroyed or damaged during the Civil war. During the Dutch period, Jaffna also became prominent as a trading town in locally grown agricultural products with the native merchants and farmers profiting as much as the VOC merchants. Great Britain took over Dutch possessions in Sri Lankan from 1796. Britain maintained many of the Dutch mercantile, tolerant religious and taxation policies. During the British colonial period, almost all the schools that eventually played role in the high literacy achievement of the Jaffna residents were built by missionaries belonging to American Ceylon Mission
American Ceylon Mission
The American Ceylon Mission to Jaffna, Sri Lanka started with the arrival in 1813 of missionaries sponsored by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions . The British colonial office in India and Ceylon restricted the Americans to the relatively small Jaffna Peninsula for...
, Weslyan Methodist Mission
Wesleyan Methodist Mission, North Ceylon
Wesleyan Methodist Mission, North Ceylon was formed as part of the Wesleyan Methodist Mission of Ceylon, the oldest Weslyan Mission to be established in East in 1813...
, Saivite reformer Arumuka Navalar
Arumuka Navalar
Arumuka Navalar was one the early revivalists of native Hindu Tamil traditions in Sri Lanka and India. He and others like him were responsible for reviving and reforming native traditions that had come under a long period of dormancy and decline during the previous 400 years of colonial rule by...
and others. All the major roads and railway line connecting the city with Colombo, Kandy
Kandy
Kandy is a city in the center of Sri Lanka. It was the last capital of the ancient kings' era of Sri Lanka. The city lies in the midst of hills in the Kandy plateau, which crosses an area of tropical plantations, mainly tea. Kandy is one of the most scenic cities in Sri Lanka; it is both an...
and the rest of the country were built. Under the British, Jaffna enjoyed a period of rapid growth and prosperity. The excess wealth of the citizens of the city was directed towards building civic projects like temples, schools, library and the museum.
Post-colonial history
After Sri Lanka became independent in 1948 from BritainUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, the relationship between majority Sinhalese and minority Tamils worsened
Origins of the Sri Lankan civil war
The origins of the Sri Lankan Civil War lie in the continuous political rancor between the majority Sinhalese and the minority Tamils. According to Jonathan Spencer, a social anthropologist from the School of Social and Political Studies of the University of Edinburgh, the war is an outcome of how...
. Residents of Jaffna city along with the rest of Tamil population of Sri Lanka were in the fore front of the political mobilization behind Tamil nationalist
Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism
Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism is the conviction of the Sri Lankan Tamil people, a minority ethnic group in the South Asian island country of Sri Lanka , that they have the right to constitute an independent or autonomous political community. This idea has not always existed...
parties. After the Tamil conference incident
1974 Tamil conference incident
The 1974 Tamil conference incident occurred during the fourth World Tamil Research Conference, which was held in the city of Jaffna between January 3 and 9, 1974...
in 1974, the then mayor of Jaffna Alfred Duraiappah
Alfred Duraiappah
Alfred Duraiappah was a former MP and mayor of Jaffna, Sri Lanka who was assassinated by the Tamil Tigers.-First political murder:A member of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party, Alfred Duraiappah was a former MP and mayor of Jaffna...
was assassinated by the leader of rebel LTTE, Velupillai Prabhakaran
Velupillai Prabhakaran
Thiruvenkadam Velupillai Prabhakaran was the founder and leader of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam , a militant organization that sought to create an independent Tamil state in the north and east of Sri Lanka...
in 1975. Following further deterioration of political discourse, the Jaffna library was burnt down in 1981 by Police
Sri Lanka Police Service
The Sri Lanka Police Service is the civilian national police force of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. The police force has a manpower of approximately 85,000. It is responsible for enforcing criminal and traffic law, enhancing public safety, maintaining order and keeping the peace...
and other miscreants. Failure of the political class to find an adequate compromise led to full scale civil war starting in 1983 soon after the Black July pogrom. Sri Lankan military and police were using the Dutch era fort as their encampment which was surrounded by various Tamil militants
Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups
Sri Lankan Tamil militant groups rose to prominence in the 1970s to fight the state of Sri Lanka in order to create an independent Tamil Eelam in the north of Sri Lanka. They rose in response to the perception amongst minority Sri Lankan Tamils that the state was preferring the majority Sinhalese...
groups. Bombardment from air and land of the city led to damage to civic and civilian properties, death and injury to civilians and destruction the economic potential of the city. In 1986, the Sri Lankan military withdrew from the city and it came under the full control of the LTTE.
In 1987, the Indian forces brought to Sri Lanka under the auspicious Indo- Sri Lankan peace accord
Indo-Sri Lanka Accord
The Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Accord was an accord signed in Colombo on July 29, 1987, between Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President J.R. Jayewardene. The accord was expected to resolve the ongoing Sri Lankan civil war...
led an operation to take the city from the rebels
Operation Pawan
Operation Pawan was the codename assigned to the operation by the Indian Peace Keeping Force to take control of Jaffna from the LTTE , in late 1987 to enforce the disarmament of the LTTE as a part of the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord...
. It led to incidents like the Jaffna university hellidrop
Jaffna University Helidrop
The Jaffna University Helidrop was the first of the operations launched by the Indian Peace Keeping Forces aimed at disarming the Tamil Tigers by force and securing the town of Jaffna, Sri Lanka, in the opening stages of Operation Pawan during the active Indian mediation in the Sri Lankan Civil War...
and Jaffna hospital massacre
Jaffna hospital massacre
The Jaffna hospital massacre happened on October 21 and 22, 1987 during the Sri Lankan Civil War, when soldiers of the Indian Army entered the premises of the Jaffna Teaching Hospital in Jaffna, Sri Lanka, an island nation in South Asia, and killed about 68–70 patients, nurses, doctors and other...
in which patients and medical workers were killed by the Indian Army
Indian Army
The Indian Army is the land based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. With about 1,100,000 soldiers in active service and about 1,150,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's largest standing volunteer army...
. More than 200 civilians were also killed during attempt to take the city over by the IPKF. After the departure of the Indians, the city came under the control LTTE once more, but were ousted in 1995
Battle of Jaffna (1995)
The Battle of Jaffna was a battle fought from October to December 1995 for the city of Jaffna.-The battle:The city of Jaffna had been for years a major stronghold of the LTTE. The Tigers wieved the city as the capital of their new independent state. The city was briefly recaptured by the Indian...
after a 50 day siege. The economic embargo of the rebel controlled territories in general also had a negative impact in Jaffna including lack of power, critical medicines and food. During the period of LTTE occupation, all Muslim residents were expelled in 1990 and forced evacuated all residents in 1995. Since the end of civil war in 2009, refugees have begun to return and visible reconstruction has taken place. The Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora
Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora
The Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora refers to the global diaspora of the people of Sri Lankan Tamil origin. It can be said to be a subset of the larger Sri Lankan as well as Tamil diaspora....
and business interests from Colombo has invested in commercial enterprises. Countries in Europe, US and India have shown an interest in investing in infrastructure projects and other economic activities.
Governance
The Jaffna Municipal CouncilJaffna Municipal Council
Jaffna Municipal Council is the local authority for the city of Jaffna in northern Sri Lanka. JMC is responsible for providing a variety of local public services including roads, sanitation, drains, housing, libraries, public parks and recreational facilities...
governs the City of Jaffna. It was established under the Municipalities Ordinance Act of 1865. Although other cities such as Kandy
Kandy
Kandy is a city in the center of Sri Lanka. It was the last capital of the ancient kings' era of Sri Lanka. The city lies in the midst of hills in the Kandy plateau, which crosses an area of tropical plantations, mainly tea. Kandy is one of the most scenic cities in Sri Lanka; it is both an...
, Galle
Galle
Galle is a city situated on the southwestern tip of Sri Lanka, 119 km from Colombo. Galle is the capital city of Southern Province of Sri Lanka and it lies in Galle District....
and Colombo had elected municipal councils soon after the 1865 ordinance, Jaffna did not have an elected municipal council for many years. This reflected the desire of the British bureaucrats to govern the city directly rather than share power with a highly literate electorate. The first elected mayor was Cathiravelu Ponnambalam. Number of subsequent mayors were assassinated such as Alfred Duraiappah
Alfred Duraiappah
Alfred Duraiappah was a former MP and mayor of Jaffna, Sri Lanka who was assassinated by the Tamil Tigers.-First political murder:A member of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party, Alfred Duraiappah was a former MP and mayor of Jaffna...
, Sarojini Yogeswaran
Sarojini Yogeswaran
Sarojini Yogeswaran was a Sri Lankan politician. Yogeswaran was a member of the Tamil United Liberation Front. In 1997, she was elected mayor of Jaffna, the first elected mayor in 14 years....
and Pon Sivapalan
Pon Sivapalan
Pon Sivapalan was a Sri Lankan politician.Sivapalan succeeded Sarojini Yogeswaran as mayor of Jaffna after she was assassinated in 1998 by the LTTE. Like Yogeswaran, Sivapalan belonged to the Tamil United Liberation Front...
. There were 15 years without elections since 1983.
The post civil war elections
Sri Lankan local government elections, 2009
Local government elections were held in Sri Lanka on 8 August 2009 for two local councils in the north of the country: Jaffna Municipal Council and Vavuniya Urban Council. They were the first elections held in the country since the government declared victory in the 26 year old civil war on 18 May...
were held in 2009 after a gap of 11 year. The municipal council consists of 29 members. As the original municipal council building was destroyed during the civil war, a new building is to be constructed for the current municipal council in 2011.
Geography and climate
The city is surrounded by Jaffna LagoonJaffna Lagoon
Jaffna lagoon is a large lagoon off Jaffna District and Kilinochchi District, northern Sri Lanka.The lagoon is surrounded by the densely populated Jaffna peninsula containing palmyra palms, coconut plantations, and rice paddies. There are numerous fishing villages and some salt pans.The lagoon has...
to its west and south, Kokkuvil
Kokkuvil
Kokkuvil is a small town in the North Sri Lankan city of Jaffna....
and Thirunelveli
Thirunelveli (Sri Lanka)
Thirunelveli is a town in Jaffna District, Sri Lanka. Some say in Tamil it translates to God's-paddy-field. It is located about 5 km from Jaffna. This is the location of an LTTE attack that killed 13 Sri Lanka Army soldiers in July 1983, triggering the Sri Lankan Civil War....
to the north, and Nallur to the east. Jaffna peninsula is made of limestone as it was submerged under sea during the Miocene period. The limestone is gray, yellow and white porous type. The entire land mass is flat and lies at sea level
Sea level
Mean sea level is a measure of the average height of the ocean's surface ; used as a standard in reckoning land elevation...
. Within one mile of the city center is the island of Mandativu
Mandativu
Mandativu or Mandaitheevu is small island off the coast of minority Sri Lankan Tamil dominated Jaffna Peninsula in north Sri lanka. It is connected to the mainland via a causeway. -External links:*...
which is connected by a causway. Palmyrah groves can be seen where land has not been used for construction. Other notable vegetation is a leafless shrub called talai (alae africana) and koddanai (oleander
Oleander
Nerium oleander is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the dogbane family Apocynaceae, toxic in all its parts. It is the only species currently classified in the genus Nerium. It is most commonly known as oleander, from its superficial resemblance to the unrelated olive Olea, but has many other...
).
Jaffna features a tropical rainforest climate
Tropical rainforest climate
A tropical rainforest climate, also known as an equatorial climate, is a tropical climate usually found along the equator...
with no true dry season
Dry season
The dry season is a term commonly used when describing the weather in the tropics. The weather in the tropics is dominated by the tropical rain belt, which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year...
month. Jaffna has the highest average temperature in Sri Lanka - 83°F (28°C). The temperature is highest in the months of April - May and August – September. The temperature is coolest in December – January. The annual rainfall is brought in by the North East monsoon
Monsoon
Monsoon is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation, but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea...
and it varies from one place to the other and also from year to year. The average rainfall is 50 inches in the western part of Jaffna peninsula.
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Avg Temp °C (°F) |
25 (77) |
26 (78) |
27 (80) |
27 (80) |
27 (80) |
27 (80) |
26 (78) |
26 (78) |
26 (78) |
26 (78) |
26 (78) |
25 (77) |
26 (78) |
| Precipitation centimeters (inches) |
10.2 (4) |
8.6 (3.4) |
11.7 (4.6) |
24.1 (9.5) |
29.7 (11.7) |
20.6 (8.1) |
16.5 (6.5) |
15.5 (6.1) |
21.3 (8.4) |
34.0 (13.4) |
30.2 (11.9) |
17.8 (7) |
240.3 (94.6) |
source: Weatherbase
Demography
Historically residents of Jaffna city were Tamils, Moors (Muslims), Europeans and Eurasian Burghers. Over time the composition changed with Tamils and Moors predominating and Europeans and Burghers either assimilating or moving away. Europeans and the natives lived in separate sections of the city. Most houses were modest in size and the streets were kept clean. After 1900's the population increased and Sinhalese from the south also settled in Jaffna. Prior to the civil war there were Moors, Sinhalese, Indian Tamils and other ethnic groups living in Jaffna.During colonial times Jaffna was Ceylon's (Sri Lanka) second largest city. Post-independence the city was overtaken by the growth of settlements near Colombo. But even in 1981 Jaffna was the largest city outside the Greater Colombo area. The population of Jaffna, like the rest of the North
Northern Province, Sri Lanka
The Northern Province is one of the 9 provinces of Sri Lanka. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but did not have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. Between 1988 and 2006 the province was...
and East
Eastern Province, Sri Lanka
The Eastern Province is one of the 9 provinces of Sri Lanka. The provinces have existed since the 19th century but they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils. Between 1988 and 2006 the province was...
, has been heavily affected by the civil war. Many of its Tamil residents have emigrated
Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora
The Sri Lankan Tamil Diaspora refers to the global diaspora of the people of Sri Lankan Tamil origin. It can be said to be a subset of the larger Sri Lankan as well as Tamil diaspora....
to the West
Western world
The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident , is a term referring to the countries of Western Europe , the countries of the Americas, as well all countries of Northern and Central Europe, Australia and New Zealand...
or moved to the relative safety of Colombo
Colombo
Colombo is the largest city of Sri Lanka. It is located on the west coast of the island and adjacent to Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte, the capital of Sri Lanka. Colombo is often referred to as the capital of the country, since Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte is a satellite city of Colombo...
. The city's small Moor and Sinhalese population have either been forcibly expelled or fled. As a consequence the city's population is significantly lower than it was 30 years ago. Many of the city's residents who left during the civil war have settled down elsewhere and are unlikely to return. There have been reports, particularly after the end of the civil war in 2009, about resettling those residents who wish to return to Jaffna but there hasn't been any substantive effort to do so yet.
| Year | 1880 | 1891 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1946 | 1953 | 1963 | 1971 | 1981 | 1994 | 2007 | 2010 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Population | 4,000 | 43,179 | 33,879 | 40,441 | 42,436 | 45,708 | 62,543 | 77,811 | 94,670 | 107,184 | 118,224 | 149,000 | 83,563 | 84,416 |
| Rank | 2nd | 3rd | 2nd | 2nd | 2nd | 2nd | 3rd | 3rd | 3rd | 4th | 14th | |||
| Source | Est. | Census | Census | Census | Census | Census | Census | Census | Census | Census | Census | Cen./Est. | Est. | Census |
Religion
Most Tamils are Hindus, professing the Saivite sect but might also propitiate many of the village deities. Most Christians are Roman Catholics with small but influential number of Protestants belonging to the Church of South IndiaChurch of South India
The Church of South India is the successor of the Church of England in India. It came into being in 1947 as a union of Anglican and Protestant churches in South India. With a membership of over 3.8 million, it is India's second largest Christian church after the Roman Catholic Church in India...
, the successor organization of American Ceylon Mission and other colonial era Protestant churches. All Moors were Muslims with the Sunni sect predominating with a small number of Shias prevalent amongst mercantile immigrants from North India
North India
North India, known natively as Uttar Bhārat or Shumālī Hindustān , is a loosely defined region in the northern part of India. The exact meaning of the term varies by usage...
or Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
. There is a small community of Tamil Buddhists who converted to Theravada Buddhism during the 20th century due to the efforts of Maha Bodhi Society
Maha Bodhi Society
The Maha Bodhi Society is a South Asian Buddhist society founded by the Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dharmapala. The organization's self-stated initial efforts were for the resuscitation of Buddhism in India, and restoring the ancient Buddhist shrines at Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and...
. Most Sinhalese were either Buddhists or Catholics.
There was a small community of nomadic wanderers
Nomad
Nomadic people , commonly known as itinerants in modern-day contexts, are communities of people who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in one location. There are an estimated 30-40 million nomads in the world. Many cultures have traditionally been nomadic, but...
known as Kuravar who visited Jaffna seasonally and spoke a dialect of Telugu
Telugu language
Telugu is a Central Dravidian language primarily spoken in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India, where it is an official language. It is also spoken in the neighbouring states of Chattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu...
or Tamil. Tamils were also divided along the caste system but as an urban area class was more important than caste which was more pronounced in rural areas of Jaffna district.
Economy & Transportation
Jaffna city was founded as a trading town by European merchants. Although a historic port used by the native Jaffna kingdom was already in existence when the Portuguese arrived, it was the European mercantile activity that made it prominent. In colonial times, production of clothes, items of gold and silver, processing of tobacco, rice and other related activities formed an important part of the economic activities. In modern times, the port was its principal source of revenue but it has declined drastically. Currently it survives as a fishing port. The city had a wide range of industries, including food processing, packaging, making of household items, and saltSalt
In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral...
processing, but most ceased after 1995. Since then, most industrialists, entrepreneurs, and business people have relocated to the rest of Sri Lanka and abroad. After 2009, foreign governments within the EU, US, India, and investors from the south of the island and the Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora have shown an interest in making investments in Jaffna district in general and Jaffna city in particular.
Jaffna is 396 km from Colombo. It is directly connected by railways
Rail transport in Sri Lanka
Rail Transport in Sri Lanka consists of a heavy-rail intercity network connecting major population centres and commuter rail serving Colombo commuter traffic. State-run Sri Lanka Railways, originally known as Ceylon Government Railways, is the nation's railway owner and primary operator. The...
and the roads system, both of which were disrupted during the civil war. The city was served by the Yal Devi
Yal Devi
Yal Devi is a major intercity express train in Sri Lanka. Operated by Sri Lanka Railways, the Yal Devi connects Colombo, the nation's commercial hub, with the northern cities of Jaffna and Kankesanturai. Since 1990, the service has had to terminate at intermediate stations, due to war...
train service until 1990. The A-9 highway connecting the city with the rest of the country was opened after the 2002 ceasefire. It is served by government and private sector coaches and buses. Commercial flights are available from Colombo to Jaffna via the Palali Airport.
Education
Jaffna city has number of education institutions founded by the missionary efforts and Saivite revivalism during the British colonial period. Peter PercivalPeter Percival
Peter Percival was a British born missionary, linguist and a pioneering educator in Sri Lanka and South India during the British colonial era. His work influenced prominent people such as Robert Bruce Foote a pioneering geologist and archeologist and Arumuka Navalar, a Hindu revivalist...
a Wesleyan Missionary
Wesleyan Methodist Mission, North Ceylon
Wesleyan Methodist Mission, North Ceylon was formed as part of the Wesleyan Methodist Mission of Ceylon, the oldest Weslyan Mission to be established in East in 1813...
started several schools in Jaffna city including Jaffna Central College
Jaffna Central College
Jaffna Central College is a boys public national school in Jaffna, Sri Lanka. It was founded in 1817 by British Methodist missionaries and is among the oldest of the modern schools in Sri Lanka.-History:...
and Vembadi Girls’ High School
Vembadi Girls’ High School
Vembadi Girls’ High School is a girls public national school in Jaffna, Sri Lanka. It was founded in 1834 by British Methodist missionaries and is among the oldest of the modern schools in Sri Lanka.-History:...
. Prior to the civil war, the city had one of the highest literacy rates within Sri Lanka.
Literature & Media
Jaffna has had a media sector from the mid 1800's. The first known English and Tamil weekly called, Uthayatharakai in Tamil or Morning Star was published jointly in 1840 by American Ceylon MissionAmerican Ceylon Mission
The American Ceylon Mission to Jaffna, Sri Lanka started with the arrival in 1813 of missionaries sponsored by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions . The British colonial office in India and Ceylon restricted the Americans to the relatively small Jaffna Peninsula for...
and the Weslyan church. In 1863 the Ceylon Patriot was published by a local advocate as a weekly. The Jaffna Catholic Guardian and the Hindu Organ were published by Roman Catholic and Hindu organization to present their religious interests between 1876 and 1889 respectively. The first Tamil monthly was Sanmarkapothini which was published in 1884.
These early journals were followed by number popular newspapers in Tamil such as Eelakesari and Eelanadu. Jaffna was also the seen the publication of journals committed to the growth of modernistic and socially purposive literature such as Bharati and Marumalarchi in 1946. Now defunct English weekly Saturday Review was an influential news magazine that came out of Jaffna. During the civil war many publishers, authors and journalists were assassinated or arrested and the media heavily censored. Since the 2000s Jaffna is served by newspapers such as Uthayan
Uthayan
Uthayan is a Tamil newspaper published in Jaffna, Sri Lanka. It was founded in 1985 and has been the single voice of the people of the Jaffna since 1996....
, Yarl Thinakkural, Valampurii and Thinamurasu.
Notable buildings
Most historic buildings such as Temples, Saraswathy Mahal library and palaces in the Royal city of Nallur and the rest of Jaffna peninsula were destroyed by the Portuguese colonials. Materials from destroyed buildings were used in the construction of the Jaffna fort and other fortifications. Cankilian Thopu or entrance of the palace of Cankili I and Mantri Manai or minister's palace are few of the pre-colonial buildings still standing in the royal quarters of Nallur. Within the Jaffna city proper, the Dutch fort is an imposing structure followed by many Dutch era homes, churches and civil buildings most of which were damaged during the civil war. There are number of British colonial era building such as the Indo-SarasenicIndo-Saracenic Revival architecture
The Indo-Saracenic Revival was an architectural style movement by British architects in the late 19th century in British India...
style clock tower and the Public library that are notable. Almost all Hindu temples in Jaffna including the socially important Nallur Kandaswamy temple were reconstructed during the Dutch and British period.