Japanese settlement in the Marshall Islands
Encyclopedia
Japanese settlement in the Marshall Islands
was spurred on by Japanese trade in the Pacific region. The first Japanese explorers arrived in the Marshall Islands in the late 19th century, although permanent settlements were not established until the 1920s. As compared to other Micronesia
n islands in the South Pacific Mandate
, there were fewer Japanese who settled in the islands. After the Japanese surrender
in 1945, the Japanese populace were repatriated to Japan
, although people of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage remained behind. They form a sizeable minority in the Marshall Islands' populace, and are well-represented in the corporate, public and political sectors in the country.
during their return voyage from Australia
. The pearl divers were believed to be murdered, after the Ada, a British trading ship sailed past the Marshall Islands and found the skeletal remains of the pearl divers. When news of the purported murder reached the Japanese government, two Japanese envoys–Goto Taketaro (a son of Goto Shojiro
) and Suzuki Tsunenori were sent to the Marshall Islands. The envoys reportedly explored some of the nearby atoll
s before paying a visit to Labon Kabua, one of the principal chief in the Marshall Islands. Before Goto and Suzuki returned for Japan, they induced Kabua to raise the Japanese flag
over his house at Ailinglaplap. The Japanese government subsequently ordered the two envoys to return to the island to haul down the flag upon the envoys' return. During the German colonial era, there were occasional reports of Japanese fishermen making landfalls in the atoll, and there was at least one other incident which Japanese fishermen were also killed by the islanders. A report published by a German explorer, Hambruch in 1915 mentioned that three Japanese fishermen in a junk
were massacred by the Marshallese at Lae Atoll
in 1910.
in 1914. The Japanese government subsequently dispatched a few administrators to the Marshall islands. Between 1915 to 1918, a few Japanese businessmen from the South Seas Trading Company (Nanyo Boeki) sailed to the Marshall Islands and established a few trading stations at Rongrong, Talab and Majuro
village. A typhoon struck Majuro in 1918 and the businessmen relocated their trading posts to Jaluit. The civilian administration was established at Jabat Island
and replaced the military administration in 1922. A small branch government office was established; and local Japanese settlers opened a small copra plantation on the island.
In the early 1920s, a Japanese trader settled in Enewetak
and made false claims that he had received permission from the government to develop coconut groves. The natives initially worked for the trader, but resisted after realising the trader's false claims. There was no permanent official at Enewetak and Ujelang, but a ship from Pohnpei
would make occasional visits to the islands. Japanese traders avoided Majuro until 1926, although Japanese ships made occasional stops on the atoll. A Japanese sailor settled on Majuro and started a store in 1926, and throughout the 1930s three more independent enterprises sprung up while two trading companies–Nanyo Boeki and Kaneko
each established a branch store in Majuro village. The number of Japanese enterprises remained small throughout the Japanese colonial era, as the civilian administration experienced difficulties in acquiring unused land from the Marshallese chiefs. The first Okinawan fishermen arrived in Jaluit in the 1920s, and Jaluit experienced a steady influx of Japanese settlers from Kyushu
and Okinawa from 1930s onwards. In the early 1930s, Marshallese reported a strong presence of Japanese and Korean labourers in Jaluit who were hired to build roads and shophouses. The regional headquarters was relocated to Jaluit from Jabat. Jaluit developed into a small town by 1939, and housed a population of several hundred Japanese settlers along with some two thousand Marshallese in the suburban areas.
The Japanese navy developed military bases in the atolls in the early years of World War II
. During this time, the military brought in several thousand Japanese, Okinawan and Korean labourers to undertake the construction of military facilities. Some Marshallese and Koreans reported of maltreatment by the Japanese authorities, and there was at least one case of revolt by both groups at Jelbon on Mili Atoll
in which a hundred Japanese civilians and soldiers were killed. When American troops attacked the Marshall Islands between January and April 1944, Japanese troops evacuated many Japanese settlers and Korean labourers from the atolls. A few were reportedly killed in the ensuing air raids, while others who remained behind were captured as Prisoners of war after the Americans captured the atolls, together with some Japanese soldiers.
, the Japanese population on the islands was repatriated back to Japan. People of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage generally stayed behind, although a few were granted an option if they were above 16 years old. The Japanese–Marshallese quickly assimilated with the Marshallese in the years after the war. Many of them became politicians and businessmen, and in the 1970s people of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage controlled most of the private enterprises in the state. Japanese–Marshallese politicians generally held critical opinions on nuclear weapon tests carried out by the United States in Operation Crossroads
. At least one ethnologist, Greg Dvorak suggested that the shared Japanese and Marshallese experience of nuclear warfare shaped critical views held by Japanese–Marshallese politicians. From the 1990s onwards, Japanese–Marshallese politicians including James Matayoshi
and Hiroshi Yamamura often led lobbies against the United States for monetary compensation of victims of radioactive fallout.
When Marshall Islands became independent in 1986, second and third-generation Japanese–Marshallese offsprings formed the Japanese–Marshallese association (also known as Marshall Nikkeijin Kai in Japanese), and rendered assistance to families of Japanese soldiers who died during the Pacific War
. Although the association had limited patronage from the younger generation of Japanese–Marshallese, it played an important role in lobbying the government to forge closer cultural and economic ties with Japan. Japanese firms that were based on the Marshall Islands since the 1960s actively sought joint ventures with local companies from the 1980s onwards, mainly in the fishery sector. Expatiates usually consisted of Okinawan fishermen based at Majuro, where Japanese companies have built smoking and canning facilities to facilitate the processing of tuna catches.
, Banny de Brum cited in 2006 that some 6,000 individuals, or about 10% of all Marshall Islanders had some Japanese ancestry.
shrine or Buddhist temple was found in each settlement with a sizeable Japanese populace. In Jaluit, Wotje, Kwajalein
, Enewetak and Maloelap, several Shinto shrines were built during the 1930s. When the Americans invaded the Marshall Islands in 1944, all the existing Shinto shrines were either destroyed in air raids, or were demolished. People of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage subsequently adopted Christianity in favour of Buddhism or Shinto after the Japanese surrender.
steamer noted that the most Marshallese women wore the kimono
instead of the traditional loincloth (lavalava in Marshallese) in October 1918. Interethnic relations between the Japanese settlers and civil servants with the Marshallese were friendly, but racial segregation
was enforced between Japanese and Micronesians in the workforce and educational sectors. As compared to Micronesians from other islands, Marshallese generally retained more aspects of their traditional lifestyles, relative to the small Japanese populace in the islands. Contrary to Japanese settlements in the other mandated islands, settlers consisted mainly of single men, and intermarriages with Marshallese women were much more frequent. Japanese songs such as Masaharu Gunto were written in the 1930s and reflected of romantic associations between Japanese men and Marshallese women. Ethnic suspicion and hatred by the Marshallese against the Japanese settlers developed during the Second World War, as the Japanese civilian government placed increased emphasis on militarism
and forcibly conscripted many Marshallese to menial labour during the Second World War. Shortly before the end of the war, a few Marshallese led independent and isolated attacks against Japanese military personnel wherever possible.
Marshall Islands
The Republic of the Marshall Islands , , is a Micronesian nation of atolls and islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, just west of the International Date Line and just north of the Equator. As of July 2011 the population was 67,182...
was spurred on by Japanese trade in the Pacific region. The first Japanese explorers arrived in the Marshall Islands in the late 19th century, although permanent settlements were not established until the 1920s. As compared to other Micronesia
Micronesia
Micronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It is distinct from Melanesia to the south, and Polynesia to the east. The Philippines lie to the west, and Indonesia to the southwest....
n islands in the South Pacific Mandate
South Pacific Mandate
The was the Japanese League of Nations mandate consisting of several groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean which came under the administration of Japan after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I.-Early history:Under the terms of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, after the start of World...
, there were fewer Japanese who settled in the islands. After the Japanese surrender
Surrender of Japan
The surrender of Japan in 1945 brought hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent...
in 1945, the Japanese populace were repatriated to Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, although people of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage remained behind. They form a sizeable minority in the Marshall Islands' populace, and are well-represented in the corporate, public and political sectors in the country.
Early contact (19th century)
The earliest Japanese contact with the Marshall Islands dates back to 1884, when a group of pearl divers were blown off course to Lae AtollLae Atoll
Lae Atoll is a coral atoll of 20 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of...
during their return voyage from Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
. The pearl divers were believed to be murdered, after the Ada, a British trading ship sailed past the Marshall Islands and found the skeletal remains of the pearl divers. When news of the purported murder reached the Japanese government, two Japanese envoys–Goto Taketaro (a son of Goto Shojiro
Goto Shojiro
Count was a Japanese samurai and politician during the Bakumatch and early Meiji period of Japanese history. He was a leader of which would evolve into a political party.- Early life :...
) and Suzuki Tsunenori were sent to the Marshall Islands. The envoys reportedly explored some of the nearby atoll
Atoll
An atoll is a coral island that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.- Usage :The word atoll comes from the Dhivehi word atholhu OED...
s before paying a visit to Labon Kabua, one of the principal chief in the Marshall Islands. Before Goto and Suzuki returned for Japan, they induced Kabua to raise the Japanese flag
Flag of Japan
The national flag of Japan is a white rectangular flag with a large red disk in the center. This flag is officially called in Japanese, but is more commonly known as ....
over his house at Ailinglaplap. The Japanese government subsequently ordered the two envoys to return to the island to haul down the flag upon the envoys' return. During the German colonial era, there were occasional reports of Japanese fishermen making landfalls in the atoll, and there was at least one other incident which Japanese fishermen were also killed by the islanders. A report published by a German explorer, Hambruch in 1915 mentioned that three Japanese fishermen in a junk
Junk (ship)
A junk is an ancient Chinese sailing vessel design still in use today. Junks were developed during the Han Dynasty and were used as sea-going vessels as early as the 2nd century AD. They evolved in the later dynasties, and were used throughout Asia for extensive ocean voyages...
were massacred by the Marshallese at Lae Atoll
Lae Atoll
Lae Atoll is a coral atoll of 20 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of...
in 1910.
Japanese administration (1914–1944)
A military administration was established when Japan annexed the Marshall Islands from GermanyGermany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
in 1914. The Japanese government subsequently dispatched a few administrators to the Marshall islands. Between 1915 to 1918, a few Japanese businessmen from the South Seas Trading Company (Nanyo Boeki) sailed to the Marshall Islands and established a few trading stations at Rongrong, Talab and Majuro
Majuro
Majuro , is a large coral atoll of 64 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The atoll itself has a land area of and encloses a lagoon of...
village. A typhoon struck Majuro in 1918 and the businessmen relocated their trading posts to Jaluit. The civilian administration was established at Jabat Island
Jabat Island
Jabat Island is an island in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only , and has a length of . It is located from Ailinglapalap Atoll...
and replaced the military administration in 1922. A small branch government office was established; and local Japanese settlers opened a small copra plantation on the island.
In the early 1920s, a Japanese trader settled in Enewetak
Enewetak
Enewetak Atoll is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its land area totals less than , surrounding a deep central lagoon, in circumference...
and made false claims that he had received permission from the government to develop coconut groves. The natives initially worked for the trader, but resisted after realising the trader's false claims. There was no permanent official at Enewetak and Ujelang, but a ship from Pohnpei
Pohnpei
Not to be confused with Pompeii, the ancient city destroyed by Vesuvius in AD 79.Pohnpei "upon a stone altar " is the name of one of the four states in the Federated States of Micronesia , situated among the Senyavin Islands which are part of the larger Caroline Islands group...
would make occasional visits to the islands. Japanese traders avoided Majuro until 1926, although Japanese ships made occasional stops on the atoll. A Japanese sailor settled on Majuro and started a store in 1926, and throughout the 1930s three more independent enterprises sprung up while two trading companies–Nanyo Boeki and Kaneko
Kaneko
, also referred to as , was a Japanese video game publisher founded in Suginami, Tokyo, Japan by Hiroshi Kaneko. It published a number of games both under its brand and other companies, such as Air Buster, Nexzr, Shogun Warriors, DJ Boy, Guts'n, and the Gals Panic series...
each established a branch store in Majuro village. The number of Japanese enterprises remained small throughout the Japanese colonial era, as the civilian administration experienced difficulties in acquiring unused land from the Marshallese chiefs. The first Okinawan fishermen arrived in Jaluit in the 1920s, and Jaluit experienced a steady influx of Japanese settlers from Kyushu
Kyushu
is the third largest island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Its alternate ancient names include , , and . The historical regional name is referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands....
and Okinawa from 1930s onwards. In the early 1930s, Marshallese reported a strong presence of Japanese and Korean labourers in Jaluit who were hired to build roads and shophouses. The regional headquarters was relocated to Jaluit from Jabat. Jaluit developed into a small town by 1939, and housed a population of several hundred Japanese settlers along with some two thousand Marshallese in the suburban areas.
The Japanese navy developed military bases in the atolls in the early years of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. During this time, the military brought in several thousand Japanese, Okinawan and Korean labourers to undertake the construction of military facilities. Some Marshallese and Koreans reported of maltreatment by the Japanese authorities, and there was at least one case of revolt by both groups at Jelbon on Mili Atoll
Mili Atoll
Mili Atoll is a coral atoll of 92 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. It is located approximately southeast of Arno Its total land area is making it the second largest of the Marshall Islands after Kwajalein. It encloses a...
in which a hundred Japanese civilians and soldiers were killed. When American troops attacked the Marshall Islands between January and April 1944, Japanese troops evacuated many Japanese settlers and Korean labourers from the atolls. A few were reportedly killed in the ensuing air raids, while others who remained behind were captured as Prisoners of war after the Americans captured the atolls, together with some Japanese soldiers.
Recent years (1945–present)
After the Japanese surrenderSurrender of Japan
The surrender of Japan in 1945 brought hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent...
, the Japanese population on the islands was repatriated back to Japan. People of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage generally stayed behind, although a few were granted an option if they were above 16 years old. The Japanese–Marshallese quickly assimilated with the Marshallese in the years after the war. Many of them became politicians and businessmen, and in the 1970s people of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage controlled most of the private enterprises in the state. Japanese–Marshallese politicians generally held critical opinions on nuclear weapon tests carried out by the United States in Operation Crossroads
Operation Crossroads
Operation Crossroads was a series of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. It was the first test of a nuclear weapon after the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945...
. At least one ethnologist, Greg Dvorak suggested that the shared Japanese and Marshallese experience of nuclear warfare shaped critical views held by Japanese–Marshallese politicians. From the 1990s onwards, Japanese–Marshallese politicians including James Matayoshi
James Matayoshi
James Matayoshi is the mayor of Rongelap Atoll in the Marshall Islands. He was appointed as Rongelap's mayor in 1995 and is also the chairman of the Marshall Islands Ports Authority since 2008...
and Hiroshi Yamamura often led lobbies against the United States for monetary compensation of victims of radioactive fallout.
When Marshall Islands became independent in 1986, second and third-generation Japanese–Marshallese offsprings formed the Japanese–Marshallese association (also known as Marshall Nikkeijin Kai in Japanese), and rendered assistance to families of Japanese soldiers who died during the Pacific War
Pacific War
The Pacific War, also sometimes called the Asia-Pacific War refers broadly to the parts of World War II that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands, and in East Asia, then called the Far East...
. Although the association had limited patronage from the younger generation of Japanese–Marshallese, it played an important role in lobbying the government to forge closer cultural and economic ties with Japan. Japanese firms that were based on the Marshall Islands since the 1960s actively sought joint ventures with local companies from the 1980s onwards, mainly in the fishery sector. Expatiates usually consisted of Okinawan fishermen based at Majuro, where Japanese companies have built smoking and canning facilities to facilitate the processing of tuna catches.
Population
The Marshall Islands remained sparsely populated by Japanese settlers, relative to the other mandated Micronesian islands. The first pre-war census of the Marshall Islands counted 490 Japanese among 10,000 Marshallese, and the number of Japanese settlers increased to 680 scattered across all 33 atolls in 1940. Within the same year, the mandated islands had a total Japanese population of 77,000. The largest towns in the Marshall Islands, Jaluit and Jabor, had a thousand Japanese each, while in the most isolated atolls, the Japanese populace amounted to no more than a few individuals. Korean labourers were also counted recognised as Japanese in official statistics, and accounted for another 1,200 individuals which were brought into the Marshall Islands during the war. There was a sizeable minority of people of mixed Japanese and Marshallese heritage, which was more common in settlements with a smaller Japanese populace. In official census, people of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage are identified by their Marshallese heritage from 1945 onwards. The Marshallese ambassador to the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, Banny de Brum cited in 2006 that some 6,000 individuals, or about 10% of all Marshall Islanders had some Japanese ancestry.
Language
Japanese was extensively used for day-to-day communication during the colonial era by both Japanese and Marshallese, but was replaced by Marshallese after the Japanese surrender. Japanese is still preferred as a second language over English among those of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage, and islanders occasionally adopt Japanese loanwords for certain terms in the Marshallese language.Religion
At least one ShintoShinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
shrine or Buddhist temple was found in each settlement with a sizeable Japanese populace. In Jaluit, Wotje, Kwajalein
Kwajalein
Kwajalein Atoll , is part of the Republic of the Marshall Islands . The southernmost and largest island in the atoll is named Kwajalein Island. English-speaking residents of the U.S...
, Enewetak and Maloelap, several Shinto shrines were built during the 1930s. When the Americans invaded the Marshall Islands in 1944, all the existing Shinto shrines were either destroyed in air raids, or were demolished. People of mixed Japanese–Marshallese heritage subsequently adopted Christianity in favour of Buddhism or Shinto after the Japanese surrender.
Interethnic relations in society
As compared to other Micronesian islands, most Marshallese adopted Japanese customs within the first few years of the Japanese administration. An Australian journalist travelling on a Burns PhilpBurns Philp
Burns Philp was once a major player in the food manufacturing business. Since its delisting from the Australian Stock Exchange in December 2006 and the subsequent sale of its assets, the company has mainly become a cashed up shell company...
steamer noted that the most Marshallese women wore the kimono
Kimono
The is a Japanese traditional garment worn by men, women and children. The word "kimono", which literally means a "thing to wear" , has come to denote these full-length robes...
instead of the traditional loincloth (lavalava in Marshallese) in October 1918. Interethnic relations between the Japanese settlers and civil servants with the Marshallese were friendly, but racial segregation
Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home...
was enforced between Japanese and Micronesians in the workforce and educational sectors. As compared to Micronesians from other islands, Marshallese generally retained more aspects of their traditional lifestyles, relative to the small Japanese populace in the islands. Contrary to Japanese settlements in the other mandated islands, settlers consisted mainly of single men, and intermarriages with Marshallese women were much more frequent. Japanese songs such as Masaharu Gunto were written in the 1930s and reflected of romantic associations between Japanese men and Marshallese women. Ethnic suspicion and hatred by the Marshallese against the Japanese settlers developed during the Second World War, as the Japanese civilian government placed increased emphasis on militarism
Militarism
Militarism is defined as: the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests....
and forcibly conscripted many Marshallese to menial labour during the Second World War. Shortly before the end of the war, a few Marshallese led independent and isolated attacks against Japanese military personnel wherever possible.