John Gabriel Stedman
Encyclopedia
John Gabriel Stedman was a distinguished British–Dutch soldier and noted author. He was born in the Netherlands in 1744 to Robert Stedman, a Scot
and an officer in Holland's Scots Brigade, and his wife of Dutch noble lineage, Antoinetta Christina van Ceulen. He lived most of his childhood in Holland with his parents but spent time with his uncle in Scotland. Stedman described his childhood as being "chock-full of misadventures and abrasive encounters of every description." His years in Surinam, on the northern coast of South America, were characterized by encounters with African slaves and colonial planters, as well as the exotic local flora and fauna. He recorded his experiences in The Narrative of a Five Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (1796) which, with its firsthand depictions of slavery and other aspects of colonization, became an important tool in the early abolitionist cause.
Stedman left Holland on 24 December 1772 after responding to a call for volunteers to serve in the West Indies. He was given the rank of Captain by way of a brevet, a temporary authorization for an officer to hold a higher rank. His corps comprised 800 volunteers to be sent to Surinam aboard the frigate Zeelust to assist local troops fighting against marauding bands of escaped slaves, known as Maroons
, in the eastern region of the colony. The corps, which was trained for the battlefields of Europe, was unprepared for battle against the unfamiliar guerrilla tactics of its opponents.
After arriving in the colony, Stedman received orders from Colonel Fourgeoud, commander of the newly arrived troops. Fourgeoud was notorious for dining on gourmet meats, wine and other delicacies while his troops survived on meager and often spoiled sustenance. He treated Stedman cruelly, inventing tasks for him to complete and taking away his ammunition. Stedman believed that Fourgeoud neglected his duties as an officer, ignoring the well-being of his troops, and that he only retained his title through monetary bribes. Regarding Fourgeoud's poor leadership, Stedman was uncompromising: "I solemnly declare to have still omitted many other calamities that we suffered."
On 10 August 1775, shortly after falling ill in Surinam, Stedman wrote Col. Fourgeoud a letter requesting both a furlough to regain health and six months military pay that was owed him. Fourgeoud refused twice, although he granted similar requests to other officers. Stedman later wrote, "This so incensed me that I not only wished him in Hell, but myself also, to have the satisfaction of seeing him burn."
In addition to the 800 European soldiers, Stedman fought alongside the newly formed corps of Rangers. The Rangers, slave volunteers purchased from their masters, were promised their freedom, a house and garden plot, and military pay for their involvement in action against the rebelling Maroons of the colony. The corps of Rangers originally numbered 116, but 190 more were purchased after the original group displayed remarkable courage and perseverance on the battlefield.
Stedman served in seven campaigns in the forests of Surinam, each averaging three months. He only engaged in one battle, which took place in 1774 and concluded with the capture of the village of Gado Saby. A vivid portrayal of this battle can be seen in the frontispiece of Stedman's Narrative, which depicts Stedman standing over a dead slave in the foreground and a village burning in the distance.
Throughout these campaigns, ambushes occurred frequently and disease spread rapidly, resulting in an enormous loss of troops. These losses were so great that 830 additional troops were sent from Holland in 1775 to supplement the original 800. The campaigns were riddled with sickness, anger, fatigue, and death. Stedman observed the horrors of battle and the cat-and-mouse antics of both sides that resulted in merely pushing the battle across Surinam instead of quelling it.
Stedman first arrived in Surinam on 2 February 1772. He landed at the Amsterdam fortress
and was quickly overcome with the sights and sounds of Surinam. According to Stedman, the land abounded with delicious smells – lemon, orange, and shaddocks
. The natives, dressed in loincloths, were somewhat shocking to Stedman at first, and he described them as "bargemen as naked as when they were born." Stedman described Surinam as a generally fertile area.
According to the Narrative, parts of Surinam are mountainous, dry, and barren, but much of the land is ripe and fertile. It enjoys a year-long growing season, with rains and a warm climate. In some parts the land is low and marshy, and crops are grown with a "flooding" method of irrigation similar to that used in ancient Egypt. Surinam is also riddled with uncultivated areas; there are immense forests, mountains (some with valuable minerals), deep marsh, swamps, and even large savanna areas. Some areas of the coast are inaccessible, tainted with rocks, riverbanks, quicksand, and bogs.
Two rivers are central to the colonies: the Orinoco
and the Amazon
. At the time of Stedman's visit, the Portuguese lived along the river Amazon and the Spanish along the river Orinoco. Dutch colonists were spread along the seaside and the French lived in a small settlement known as Cayenne.
Surinam was first colonized by the governor of Barbados
in the 1650s, then captured by the Dutch soon after, who quickly began to cultivate sugar. In 1683 Surinam came under control of the Dutch West India Company
and was renamed Dutch Guiana
. The colony developed an agricultural economy highly dependent on African slavery. The Dutch abolished slavery in 1863, but used indentured laborers
from the British Indian colonies to stabilize sugar production. Surinam was granted internal self-governance
in 1954, and finally achieved full independence in 1975.
, African, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. Though the colony and the surrounding forests were filled with treachery and violence, in his Narrative Stedman takes time to describe the ordinary life and the happiness of certain situations in the colony.
The first pages of the Narrative record Stedman's voyage to Surinam. He spends his days reading on deck, attempting to avoid those sick from the turbulent sea.
Upon his arrival in Surinam, Stedman and the troops are warmly greeted by residents of the fortress Amsterdam, along the Surinam River. Here, Stedman gives his first description of the sweet, perfumed smells and the beautiful landscape of Surinam.
Stedman contrasts the beauty and sweetness of the colony with his first taste of the violence and cruelty endemic there. On shore is a nearly naked slave woman, chained to an iron weight. The woman received 200 lashes and carried the weight for a month as a result of her inability to fulfill a task to which she was assigned. Stedman observes her suffering with disbelief and fascination.
Stedman spends the night at an acquaintance's residence, where by his account a middle-aged female slave makes a sexual advance toward him. Stedman firmly declines, claiming how appalling the situation was. Only a few days later, Stedman is offered a young girl to be his "wife" for the duration of his stay in the colony. Though he denies the offer, Stedman explains that these "wives" were commonplace in Surinam and acted as a personal attendants and lovers to single European gentlemen.
A short time after his arrival in Surinam, Stedman engages in the first of several skirmishes with the rebelling Maroons. Captives are taken on both fronts after the Maroons ravage plantations for revenge and supplies. The plantation owners execute eleven captives, which begins a series of violent confrontations between the two sides. A large number of slaves begin rebelling in hopes of gaining the same accommodations as the Maroons.
Stedman soon returns to camp where he is introduced to a mulatto
slave girl by the name of Joanna. He is immediately intrigued by her appearance and demeanor. He finds her beautiful, and he decides that he should try to buy her and provide her with a European education. However, he falls ill soon after their introduction. Joanna nurses Stedman back to health, resulting in his growing affections toward her.
While Stedman regains his health, conditions in Surinam decline. Stedman witnesses a number of executions and brutalities against both rebelling and complacent slaves. Stedman describes the horrors and his disgust with the punishments. A fellow soldier tells Stedman of one case in which a rebel was hung by his ribs for two days as punishment for his crimes. It was common practice for the Europeans of the colony to cut off the noses of their slaves, burn them alive, and whip them to death with impunity. Some slaves were known to swallow their tongues or eat dirt in an effort to commit suicide to escape.
Stedman's first commanding mission is to row along the rivers of Surinam in search of rebel forces. Unfortunately, many of his troops become ill. Stedman asks one of the slaves what he should do in order to remain healthy. The slave suggests that Stedman should swim in the river each day and walk barefoot while aboard the boat to toughen his feet. Despite his best efforts, Stedman falls ill, but he is forced to continue with his duties after word spreads that the rebels are close. The nearest encampment, Devil's Harwar, is said to be suffering heavy casualties from widespread pestilence
, probably malaria and typhus.
Over the course of his Narrative, Stedman relays several stories regarding the wretched state of the slaves and the horrors to which they are subjected. In one story, involving a group sailing by boat, an enslaved mother was ordered by her mistress
to hand over her crying baby. The mistress then threw the baby into the river, drowning it. The mother jumped into the river after her baby, whose body was recovered by fellow slaves. The mother later received 200 lashes for her defiant behavior. In another story, a small boy shoots himself in the head to escape flogging. In yet another, a man is completely broken on the rack and left for days to suffer until he died.
At this time, Stedman's life in Surinam is improving, and Joanna gives birth to their child, Johnny. But this brief stint of domestic happiness is disrupted when the Scots Brigade is recalled to Holland. Aware of his imminent departure, Stedman attempts to enjoy what little time he has left by spending it with Joanna and Johnny at home. However, new insurrections erupt and Stedman is ordered to remain in Surinam.
Stedman was intrigued by Maroon culture. Though certain aspects are foreign and unsettling, such as the cutting of slits into the cheeks and the sharpening of teeth, Stedman admires and praises the culture as a whole. He writes that Africans are the truest friends one could hope for, generally good natured, both sexes showing great courage and heroism, often in the face of extreme cruelty and mutilation.
Stedman's last expedition in Surinam consists of marching his men in search of rebel forces. To his dismay, the only rebel found is an old man who had been left behind. The troops march to the nearest encampment for a few weeks' rest, and Stedman accompanies Colonel Fourgeoud to the capital of Paramaribo
, where Stedman finds a new residence. There he encounters a female slave about to be flogged for insubordination. This event inspires Stedman to have his son emancipated. Stedman attempts to have Johnny baptized but is turned away by the priests, who claim that because of his imminent return to Holland. he will not be in Johnny's life enough to ensure his proper Christian education. Stedman says farewell to Joanna, Johnny, and a number of close friends, and laments that he must leave his wife and child. He asks Joanna to accompany him back to Europe, but she declines because she is still a slave.
, a radical
figure who received criticism for the types of books he sold. In the 1790s, more than 50 percent of them were political, including Stedman's Narrative. The books he published supported the rights of slaves, Jews, women, prisoners and other oppressed members of society. Johnson was an active member of the Society for Constitutional Information
, an organization attempting to reform Parliament. He was condemned for the support and publication of writers who voiced liberal opinions, such as Mary Wollstonecraft
, Benjamin Franklin
and Thomas Paine
.
Stedman's Narrative became a major literary success. It was translated into a half-dozen languages and was eventually published in more than twenty-five different editions. Stedman was highly acclaimed for his insights on the slave trade and his Narrative was embraced by the abolitionist cause. Paradoxically, it also became the handbook for anti-guerilla combat in the tropics.
Interestingly, it took almost two centuries for a critical edition to be published. An abridged edition published in 1992 by Richard and Sally Price remains in print, as well as an edition published in 1962 by Stanbury Thompson. A facsimile edition of the 1988 unabridged critical edition, edited by Richard and Sally Price, was published in 2010 by iUniverse and remains available. Thanks to its portrayal of a strong female slave, abolitionists decided to publish the chapter on Joanna from the Narrative as a pamphlet in 1838. Stedman's Narrative is commonly read in university classes as an example of abolitionist literature.
. Johnson commissioned William Blake
and Francesco Bartolozzi
to create engraving
s for the Narrative. Blake engraved sixteen images for the book and delivered them in December of 1792 and 1793, as well as a single plate in 1794. The images depict some of the horrific atrocities against slaves that Stedman witnessed, including hanging
, lashing and other forms of torture. The Blake plates are more forceful than other illustrations in the book and have the "fluidity of line" and "hallucinatory quality of his original work". It is impossible to compare Stedman's sketches with the Blake plates because none of Stedman's original drawings have survived. Through their collaboration, Blake and Stedman became close friends. They visited one another often, and Blake later included some of his images from Stedman's Narrative in his poem "Visions of the Daughters of Albion
".
" full of complexities that were both familiar and foreign. Torn between the roles of "incurable romantic" and scientific observer, Stedman attempted to maintain an objective distance from this strange new world, but was drawn in by its natural beauty and exoticness.
Stedman made a daily effort to take notes on the spot, using any material in sight that could be written on, including ammunition cartridges and bleached bone. Stedman later transcribed the notes and strung them together in a small green notebook and ten sheets of paper covered front and back with writing. He intended to use these notes and journals to produce a book. Stedman also made a point to write clearly and distinguish truth from hearsay. He was diligent about facts and focused primarily on firsthand accounts of events.
On 15 June 1778, just a year after returning to the Netherlands from Surinam, Stedman began piecing together these notes and journals into what would ultimately become his Narrative. In 1787, Stedman began showing pieces of his journal to friends in an attempt to secure financial backing for the publication of the manuscript. He also attempted to gain potential subscribers in London, Edinburgh
, York
, Liverpool, Bath, Bristol, Exeter
, Portsmouth
and Plymouth
. On 8 February 1791, Stedman sent the first edition of his newly completed manuscript, along with a list of 76 subscribers, to Johnson.
In 1786, Stedman wrote a series of retrospective journal entries recalling the events of his life up to the age of 28. In this diary, he portrayed himself in the style and tone of such fictional characters as Tom Jones and Roderick Random
. He elaborated his opposition to authority
figures, which he also described during his time in Surinam, and his extreme emotional sensitivity, which led him to sympathize with creatures and humans unnecessarily punished or tortured. In these entries, Stedman tells of occasions throughout his life when he interceded on the behalf of others to alleviate suffering. Stedman insisted that he did not describe the events of his life with the intention of gaining success or fortune. He explained that he wrote "purely following the dictates of nature, & equally hating a made up man and a made up story."
encounters with slaves before he met Joanna, events which were removed from the Narrative. Stedman omitted a key conversation between himself and Joanna's mother, during which she offers to sell Joanna to him. Stedman also removes the early sexual encounters from the Narrative, and Joanna becomes an object of beauty and desire as opposed to a slave girl used for sex. Other than these changes, the Narrative follows Stedman's diary closely.
Stedman's attitude toward slaves and slavery has been the subject of scholarly debate. In spite of the abolitionist utility of the text, Stedman himself was far from an abolitionist. A defense of slavery runs throughout the text, emphasizing problems that would arise from sudden emancipation and claiming that Englishmen treated their slaves better than other colonizers. In fact, Stedman believed that slavery was necessary in some form to continue allowing Britain and other European nations to indulge their excessive desires for commodities such as tobacco and sugar. A seemingly pro-slavery attitude is espoused throughout much of his text, reflecting his patriotism as much as his attitude toward slaves themselves.
Yet according to his Narrative, Stedman often treats and describes slaves with an implicit dignity unusual for his place and time. His love affair with Joanna further complicates his views toward slavery. Their relationship does not seem, as one critic has claimed, to be rooted in a sort of "colonial sexual exploitation
," particularly considering his superlative description of her in comparison with Western women. He describes their relationship as one "of romantic love rather than filial servitude." Their interracial domesticity expresses open-minded cultural integration which even many abolitionists were unwilling to pursue; his attitudes about slavery notwithstanding, he demonstrated a very different view toward slaves themselves than was common at the time.
However, while modern readers might be sympathetic to Stedman's personal encounters with slaves, the Narrative is a hugely ethnocentric text. Some critics argue that the book made Stedman seem like a much more consistent pro-slavery advocate than he intended. But Stedman's attitudes toward individual slaves did not coincide with his attitude toward the institution of slavery. His sympathy for the suffering slaves, expressed throughout the book, is consistently obfuscated by his opinion about slavery as an institution, which according to Werner Sollors was "complicated, its representation strongly affected by the revisions."
Unsurprisingly, the personal journal that Stedman kept (and the sexual encounters mentioned therein) varies quite a bit from his published Narrative. The image-conscious Stedman, with a wife and children in England, wanted to cultivate the impression of a gentleman rather than the philanderer he might be considered on the basis of his diary. Stedman's Narrative removes the depersonalized sex with slave women and replaces it with more detail regarding his romantic relationship with Joanna.
Stedman was captivated by Joanna's looks and charm, and they soon began a romance. Before long they had a son together, named Johnny. Throughout his Narrative, Stedman praises Joanna's character and sweet nature. He often describes instances of her loyalty and devotion to him through his absences and illnesses:
Stedman's primary difficulty with Joanna was securing freedom for her and their son. Through Stedman's hard work Johnny was eventually freed from slavery, but not Joanna. However, when Stedman returned to Holland in June 1777, Joanna and their son stayed behind in Surinam. Stedman explained this by saying that Joanna refused to return with him:
Shortly after his return to Holland, Stedman married a Dutch woman, Adriana Wierts van Coehorn, and started a family with her. Joanna died in 1782, after which their son migrated to Europe to live with Stedman and was educated at Blundell's School
. Johnny later served as a midshipman
in the Royal Navy
and died at sea near Jamaica
.
Stedman's daughters were married to prosperous men of good families. His other sons joined the military. George William served as a lieutenant in the Navy and died while attempting to board a Spanish ship off the coast of Cuba in 1803. Adrian fought in the Indian War for which he was later honored after the battle of Aliwal
against the Sikhs, and died at sea in 1849. John Cambridge served as captain of the 34th Light Infantry of the East India Company and was killed in an attack on Rangoon in 1824.
, family tradition maintains that Stedman suffered a severe accident around 1796 which prevented him from commanding a regiment at Gibraltar
. He retired to Tiverton, Devon. Instructions left by Stedman before his death requested that he be buried in the parish of Bickleigh
next to gypsy king Bampfylde Moore Carew
. He asked specifically to be interred at precisely midnight by torchlight. Stedman's final request was apparently not honored in full, as his unmarked grave lies in front of the vestry door, on the opposite side of the church from Carew.
Scot
A Scot is a member of an ethnic group indigenous to Scotland, derived from the Latin name of Irish raiders, the Scoti.Scot may also refer to:People with the given name Scot:* Scot Brantley , American football linebacker...
and an officer in Holland's Scots Brigade, and his wife of Dutch noble lineage, Antoinetta Christina van Ceulen. He lived most of his childhood in Holland with his parents but spent time with his uncle in Scotland. Stedman described his childhood as being "chock-full of misadventures and abrasive encounters of every description." His years in Surinam, on the northern coast of South America, were characterized by encounters with African slaves and colonial planters, as well as the exotic local flora and fauna. He recorded his experiences in The Narrative of a Five Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (1796) which, with its firsthand depictions of slavery and other aspects of colonization, became an important tool in the early abolitionist cause.
Military career
Stedman's military career began at the age of 16. His first commanded rank was ensign, under which he defended various Low Country outposts in the employment of the Dutch Stadthouder. His rank was later elevated to lieutenant. In 1771, Stedman reenlisted because of overwhelming debt after the death of his father.Stedman left Holland on 24 December 1772 after responding to a call for volunteers to serve in the West Indies. He was given the rank of Captain by way of a brevet, a temporary authorization for an officer to hold a higher rank. His corps comprised 800 volunteers to be sent to Surinam aboard the frigate Zeelust to assist local troops fighting against marauding bands of escaped slaves, known as Maroons
Maroon (people)
Maroons were runaway slaves in the West Indies, Central America, South America, and North America, who formed independent settlements together...
, in the eastern region of the colony. The corps, which was trained for the battlefields of Europe, was unprepared for battle against the unfamiliar guerrilla tactics of its opponents.
After arriving in the colony, Stedman received orders from Colonel Fourgeoud, commander of the newly arrived troops. Fourgeoud was notorious for dining on gourmet meats, wine and other delicacies while his troops survived on meager and often spoiled sustenance. He treated Stedman cruelly, inventing tasks for him to complete and taking away his ammunition. Stedman believed that Fourgeoud neglected his duties as an officer, ignoring the well-being of his troops, and that he only retained his title through monetary bribes. Regarding Fourgeoud's poor leadership, Stedman was uncompromising: "I solemnly declare to have still omitted many other calamities that we suffered."
On 10 August 1775, shortly after falling ill in Surinam, Stedman wrote Col. Fourgeoud a letter requesting both a furlough to regain health and six months military pay that was owed him. Fourgeoud refused twice, although he granted similar requests to other officers. Stedman later wrote, "This so incensed me that I not only wished him in Hell, but myself also, to have the satisfaction of seeing him burn."
In addition to the 800 European soldiers, Stedman fought alongside the newly formed corps of Rangers. The Rangers, slave volunteers purchased from their masters, were promised their freedom, a house and garden plot, and military pay for their involvement in action against the rebelling Maroons of the colony. The corps of Rangers originally numbered 116, but 190 more were purchased after the original group displayed remarkable courage and perseverance on the battlefield.
Stedman served in seven campaigns in the forests of Surinam, each averaging three months. He only engaged in one battle, which took place in 1774 and concluded with the capture of the village of Gado Saby. A vivid portrayal of this battle can be seen in the frontispiece of Stedman's Narrative, which depicts Stedman standing over a dead slave in the foreground and a village burning in the distance.
Throughout these campaigns, ambushes occurred frequently and disease spread rapidly, resulting in an enormous loss of troops. These losses were so great that 830 additional troops were sent from Holland in 1775 to supplement the original 800. The campaigns were riddled with sickness, anger, fatigue, and death. Stedman observed the horrors of battle and the cat-and-mouse antics of both sides that resulted in merely pushing the battle across Surinam instead of quelling it.
Surinam
Nieuw Amsterdam, Suriname
Nieuw Amsterdam is the capital of the Commewijne District in Suriname. It is a small coastal town situated at the confluence of the Suriname River and Commewijne River, just across from Paramaribo, the country's capital. Its population at the 2004 census was 5,489, with around 1,200 people living...
and was quickly overcome with the sights and sounds of Surinam. According to Stedman, the land abounded with delicious smells – lemon, orange, and shaddocks
Pomelo
The pomelo is a citrus fruit native to Southeast Asia. It is usually pale green to yellow when ripe, with sweet white flesh and very thick albedo . It is the largest citrus fruit, 15–25 cm in diameter, and usually weighing 1–2 kg...
. The natives, dressed in loincloths, were somewhat shocking to Stedman at first, and he described them as "bargemen as naked as when they were born." Stedman described Surinam as a generally fertile area.
According to the Narrative, parts of Surinam are mountainous, dry, and barren, but much of the land is ripe and fertile. It enjoys a year-long growing season, with rains and a warm climate. In some parts the land is low and marshy, and crops are grown with a "flooding" method of irrigation similar to that used in ancient Egypt. Surinam is also riddled with uncultivated areas; there are immense forests, mountains (some with valuable minerals), deep marsh, swamps, and even large savanna areas. Some areas of the coast are inaccessible, tainted with rocks, riverbanks, quicksand, and bogs.
Two rivers are central to the colonies: the Orinoco
Orinoco
The Orinoco is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes called the Orinoquia, covers , with 76.3% of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia...
and the Amazon
Amazon River
The Amazon of South America is the second longest river in the world and by far the largest by waterflow with an average discharge greater than the next seven largest rivers combined...
. At the time of Stedman's visit, the Portuguese lived along the river Amazon and the Spanish along the river Orinoco. Dutch colonists were spread along the seaside and the French lived in a small settlement known as Cayenne.
Surinam was first colonized by the governor of Barbados
Barbados
Barbados is an island country in the Lesser Antilles. It is in length and as much as in width, amounting to . It is situated in the western area of the North Atlantic and 100 kilometres east of the Windward Islands and the Caribbean Sea; therein, it is about east of the islands of Saint...
in the 1650s, then captured by the Dutch soon after, who quickly began to cultivate sugar. In 1683 Surinam came under control of the Dutch West India Company
West India Company
There has been more than one West India Company:* The Dutch West India Company* The French West India Company* The Danish West India Company* The Swedish West India Company...
and was renamed Dutch Guiana
Dutch Guiana
Dutch Guiana, also known as Netherlands Guyana or Dutch Guyana , is the name given to various Dutch colonies on the northern coast of South America, created by the Dutch West India Company...
. The colony developed an agricultural economy highly dependent on African slavery. The Dutch abolished slavery in 1863, but used indentured laborers
Indentured servant
Indentured servitude refers to the historical practice of contracting to work for a fixed period of time, typically three to seven years, in exchange for transportation, food, clothing, lodging and other necessities during the term of indenture. Usually the father made the arrangements and signed...
from the British Indian colonies to stabilize sugar production. Surinam was granted internal self-governance
Self-governance
Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of organization.It may refer to personal conduct or family units but more commonly refers to larger scale activities, i.e., professions, industry bodies, religions and political units , up to and including autonomous regions and...
in 1954, and finally achieved full independence in 1975.
Stedman's Narrative
The Narrative of a Five Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam is a firsthand account of the many experiences encountered by John Gabriel Stedman while living in Surinam from the year 1772 through 1777. Stedman vividly describes the landscapes of Surinam, paying great attention to detail. His observations of life in the colony encompass the different cultures that comprise the melting pot that developed there: Dutch, Scottish, nativeIndigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
, African, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. Though the colony and the surrounding forests were filled with treachery and violence, in his Narrative Stedman takes time to describe the ordinary life and the happiness of certain situations in the colony.
The first pages of the Narrative record Stedman's voyage to Surinam. He spends his days reading on deck, attempting to avoid those sick from the turbulent sea.
Upon his arrival in Surinam, Stedman and the troops are warmly greeted by residents of the fortress Amsterdam, along the Surinam River. Here, Stedman gives his first description of the sweet, perfumed smells and the beautiful landscape of Surinam.
Stedman contrasts the beauty and sweetness of the colony with his first taste of the violence and cruelty endemic there. On shore is a nearly naked slave woman, chained to an iron weight. The woman received 200 lashes and carried the weight for a month as a result of her inability to fulfill a task to which she was assigned. Stedman observes her suffering with disbelief and fascination.
A short time after his arrival in Surinam, Stedman engages in the first of several skirmishes with the rebelling Maroons. Captives are taken on both fronts after the Maroons ravage plantations for revenge and supplies. The plantation owners execute eleven captives, which begins a series of violent confrontations between the two sides. A large number of slaves begin rebelling in hopes of gaining the same accommodations as the Maroons.
Stedman soon returns to camp where he is introduced to a mulatto
Mulatto
Mulatto denotes a person with one white parent and one black parent, or more broadly, a person of mixed black and white ancestry. Contemporary usage of the term varies greatly, and the broader sense of the term makes its application rather subjective, as not all people of mixed white and black...
slave girl by the name of Joanna. He is immediately intrigued by her appearance and demeanor. He finds her beautiful, and he decides that he should try to buy her and provide her with a European education. However, he falls ill soon after their introduction. Joanna nurses Stedman back to health, resulting in his growing affections toward her.
While Stedman regains his health, conditions in Surinam decline. Stedman witnesses a number of executions and brutalities against both rebelling and complacent slaves. Stedman describes the horrors and his disgust with the punishments. A fellow soldier tells Stedman of one case in which a rebel was hung by his ribs for two days as punishment for his crimes. It was common practice for the Europeans of the colony to cut off the noses of their slaves, burn them alive, and whip them to death with impunity. Some slaves were known to swallow their tongues or eat dirt in an effort to commit suicide to escape.
Stedman's first commanding mission is to row along the rivers of Surinam in search of rebel forces. Unfortunately, many of his troops become ill. Stedman asks one of the slaves what he should do in order to remain healthy. The slave suggests that Stedman should swim in the river each day and walk barefoot while aboard the boat to toughen his feet. Despite his best efforts, Stedman falls ill, but he is forced to continue with his duties after word spreads that the rebels are close. The nearest encampment, Devil's Harwar, is said to be suffering heavy casualties from widespread pestilence
Infectious disease
Infectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism...
, probably malaria and typhus.
Over the course of his Narrative, Stedman relays several stories regarding the wretched state of the slaves and the horrors to which they are subjected. In one story, involving a group sailing by boat, an enslaved mother was ordered by her mistress
Mistress (form of address)
Mistress is an old form of address for a woman. It implies "lady of the house", especially a woman who is head of a household.An example is Mistress Quickly in Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor. The title did not necessarily distinguish between married and unmarried women.The title Mrs. is...
to hand over her crying baby. The mistress then threw the baby into the river, drowning it. The mother jumped into the river after her baby, whose body was recovered by fellow slaves. The mother later received 200 lashes for her defiant behavior. In another story, a small boy shoots himself in the head to escape flogging. In yet another, a man is completely broken on the rack and left for days to suffer until he died.
At this time, Stedman's life in Surinam is improving, and Joanna gives birth to their child, Johnny. But this brief stint of domestic happiness is disrupted when the Scots Brigade is recalled to Holland. Aware of his imminent departure, Stedman attempts to enjoy what little time he has left by spending it with Joanna and Johnny at home. However, new insurrections erupt and Stedman is ordered to remain in Surinam.
Stedman was intrigued by Maroon culture. Though certain aspects are foreign and unsettling, such as the cutting of slits into the cheeks and the sharpening of teeth, Stedman admires and praises the culture as a whole. He writes that Africans are the truest friends one could hope for, generally good natured, both sexes showing great courage and heroism, often in the face of extreme cruelty and mutilation.
Stedman's last expedition in Surinam consists of marching his men in search of rebel forces. To his dismay, the only rebel found is an old man who had been left behind. The troops march to the nearest encampment for a few weeks' rest, and Stedman accompanies Colonel Fourgeoud to the capital of Paramaribo
Paramaribo
Paramaribo is the capital and largest city of Suriname, located on banks of the Suriname River in the Paramaribo District. Paramaribo has a population of roughly 250,000 people, more than half of Suriname's population...
, where Stedman finds a new residence. There he encounters a female slave about to be flogged for insubordination. This event inspires Stedman to have his son emancipated. Stedman attempts to have Johnny baptized but is turned away by the priests, who claim that because of his imminent return to Holland. he will not be in Johnny's life enough to ensure his proper Christian education. Stedman says farewell to Joanna, Johnny, and a number of close friends, and laments that he must leave his wife and child. He asks Joanna to accompany him back to Europe, but she declines because she is still a slave.
Publication history
Stedman's Narrative was published by Joseph JohnsonJoseph Johnson
Joseph Johnson may refer to:* Joseph Johnson , London bookseller* Joseph Johnson , U.S...
, a radical
Political radicalism
The term political radicalism denotes political principles focused on altering social structures through revolutionary means and changing value systems in fundamental ways...
figure who received criticism for the types of books he sold. In the 1790s, more than 50 percent of them were political, including Stedman's Narrative. The books he published supported the rights of slaves, Jews, women, prisoners and other oppressed members of society. Johnson was an active member of the Society for Constitutional Information
Society for Constitutional Information
Founded in 1780 by Major John Cartwright to promote parliamentary reform, the Society for Constitutional Information flourished until 1783, but thereafter made little headway...
, an organization attempting to reform Parliament. He was condemned for the support and publication of writers who voiced liberal opinions, such as Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book...
, Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin
Dr. Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A noted polymath, Franklin was a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, musician, inventor, satirist, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat...
and Thomas Paine
Thomas Paine
Thomas "Tom" Paine was an English author, pamphleteer, radical, inventor, intellectual, revolutionary, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States...
.
Stedman's Narrative became a major literary success. It was translated into a half-dozen languages and was eventually published in more than twenty-five different editions. Stedman was highly acclaimed for his insights on the slave trade and his Narrative was embraced by the abolitionist cause. Paradoxically, it also became the handbook for anti-guerilla combat in the tropics.
Interestingly, it took almost two centuries for a critical edition to be published. An abridged edition published in 1992 by Richard and Sally Price remains in print, as well as an edition published in 1962 by Stanbury Thompson. A facsimile edition of the 1988 unabridged critical edition, edited by Richard and Sally Price, was published in 2010 by iUniverse and remains available. Thanks to its portrayal of a strong female slave, abolitionists decided to publish the chapter on Joanna from the Narrative as a pamphlet in 1838. Stedman's Narrative is commonly read in university classes as an example of abolitionist literature.
Blake's illustrations
Stedman's Narrative associated him with some of Britain's foremost radicals. His publisher, Johnson, was imprisoned in 1797 for printing the political writings of Gilbert WakefieldGilbert Wakefield
Gilbert Wakefield was an English scholar and controversialist.Gilbert Wakefield was the third son of the Rev. George Wakefield, then rector of St Nicholas' Church, Nottingham but afterwards at Kingston-upon-Thames. He was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. as second...
. Johnson commissioned William Blake
William Blake
William Blake was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age...
and Francesco Bartolozzi
Francesco Bartolozzi
Francesco Bartolozzi was an Italian engraver, whose most productive period was spent in London.He was born in Florence...
to create engraving
Engraving
Engraving is the practice of incising a design on to a hard, usually flat surface, by cutting grooves into it. The result may be a decorated object in itself, as when silver, gold, steel, or glass are engraved, or may provide an intaglio printing plate, of copper or another metal, for printing...
s for the Narrative. Blake engraved sixteen images for the book and delivered them in December of 1792 and 1793, as well as a single plate in 1794. The images depict some of the horrific atrocities against slaves that Stedman witnessed, including hanging
Hanging
Hanging is the lethal suspension of a person by a ligature. The Oxford English Dictionary states that hanging in this sense is "specifically to put to death by suspension by the neck", though it formerly also referred to crucifixion and death by impalement in which the body would remain...
, lashing and other forms of torture. The Blake plates are more forceful than other illustrations in the book and have the "fluidity of line" and "hallucinatory quality of his original work". It is impossible to compare Stedman's sketches with the Blake plates because none of Stedman's original drawings have survived. Through their collaboration, Blake and Stedman became close friends. They visited one another often, and Blake later included some of his images from Stedman's Narrative in his poem "Visions of the Daughters of Albion
Visions of the Daughters of Albion
Visions of the Daughters of Albion is a 1793 poem by William Blake, produced as a book with his own illustrations. It is a short and early example of his prophetic books, and a sequel of sorts to The Book of Thel....
".
Stedman the writer
As a writer, Stedman was intrigued by Surinam, a "New WorldNew World
The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically America and sometimes Oceania . The term originated in the late 15th century, when America had been recently discovered by European explorers, expanding the geographical horizon of the people of the European middle...
" full of complexities that were both familiar and foreign. Torn between the roles of "incurable romantic" and scientific observer, Stedman attempted to maintain an objective distance from this strange new world, but was drawn in by its natural beauty and exoticness.
Stedman made a daily effort to take notes on the spot, using any material in sight that could be written on, including ammunition cartridges and bleached bone. Stedman later transcribed the notes and strung them together in a small green notebook and ten sheets of paper covered front and back with writing. He intended to use these notes and journals to produce a book. Stedman also made a point to write clearly and distinguish truth from hearsay. He was diligent about facts and focused primarily on firsthand accounts of events.
On 15 June 1778, just a year after returning to the Netherlands from Surinam, Stedman began piecing together these notes and journals into what would ultimately become his Narrative. In 1787, Stedman began showing pieces of his journal to friends in an attempt to secure financial backing for the publication of the manuscript. He also attempted to gain potential subscribers in London, Edinburgh
Edinburgh
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland, the second largest city in Scotland, and the eighth most populous in the United Kingdom. The City of Edinburgh Council governs one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. The council area includes urban Edinburgh and a rural area...
, York
York
York is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence...
, Liverpool, Bath, Bristol, Exeter
Exeter
Exeter is a historic city in Devon, England. It lies within the ceremonial county of Devon, of which it is the county town as well as the home of Devon County Council. Currently the administrative area has the status of a non-metropolitan district, and is therefore under the administration of the...
, Portsmouth
Portsmouth
Portsmouth is the second largest city in the ceremonial county of Hampshire on the south coast of England. Portsmouth is notable for being the United Kingdom's only island city; it is located mainly on Portsea Island...
and Plymouth
Plymouth
Plymouth is a city and unitary authority area on the coast of Devon, England, about south-west of London. It is built between the mouths of the rivers Plym to the east and Tamar to the west, where they join Plymouth Sound...
. On 8 February 1791, Stedman sent the first edition of his newly completed manuscript, along with a list of 76 subscribers, to Johnson.
In 1786, Stedman wrote a series of retrospective journal entries recalling the events of his life up to the age of 28. In this diary, he portrayed himself in the style and tone of such fictional characters as Tom Jones and Roderick Random
The Adventures of Roderick Random
The Adventures of Roderick Random is a picaresque novel by Tobias Smollett, first published in 1748. It is partially based on Smollett's experience as a naval-surgeon’s mate in the British Navy, especially during Battle of Cartagena de Indias in 1741...
. He elaborated his opposition to authority
Authority
The word Authority is derived mainly from the Latin word auctoritas, meaning invention, advice, opinion, influence, or command. In English, the word 'authority' can be used to mean power given by the state or by academic knowledge of an area .-Authority in Philosophy:In...
figures, which he also described during his time in Surinam, and his extreme emotional sensitivity, which led him to sympathize with creatures and humans unnecessarily punished or tortured. In these entries, Stedman tells of occasions throughout his life when he interceded on the behalf of others to alleviate suffering. Stedman insisted that he did not describe the events of his life with the intention of gaining success or fortune. He explained that he wrote "purely following the dictates of nature, & equally hating a made up man and a made up story."
Discrepancies between published Narrative and personal diaries
Because Stedman wrote his Narrative ten years after the events took place, it is important to view it in relation to his unpublished diaries and contemporary sources. The Narrative sometimes deviates from the diary, but Stedman was careful to provide his sources and state firsthand observations as opposed to outside accounts. The main difference between the two works involves Stedman's relationship with Joanna. In the diary, he recounts numerous sexualHuman sexuality
Human sexuality is the awareness of gender differences, and the capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. Human sexuality can also be described as the way someone is sexually attracted to another person whether it is to opposite sexes , to the same sex , to either sexes , or not being...
encounters with slaves before he met Joanna, events which were removed from the Narrative. Stedman omitted a key conversation between himself and Joanna's mother, during which she offers to sell Joanna to him. Stedman also removes the early sexual encounters from the Narrative, and Joanna becomes an object of beauty and desire as opposed to a slave girl used for sex. Other than these changes, the Narrative follows Stedman's diary closely.
Stedman and slavery
Yet according to his Narrative, Stedman often treats and describes slaves with an implicit dignity unusual for his place and time. His love affair with Joanna further complicates his views toward slavery. Their relationship does not seem, as one critic has claimed, to be rooted in a sort of "colonial sexual exploitation
Sexual exploitation
Sexual exploitation may refer to:*Sexual slavery*Sexual exploitation and abuse in humanitarian response...
," particularly considering his superlative description of her in comparison with Western women. He describes their relationship as one "of romantic love rather than filial servitude." Their interracial domesticity expresses open-minded cultural integration which even many abolitionists were unwilling to pursue; his attitudes about slavery notwithstanding, he demonstrated a very different view toward slaves themselves than was common at the time.
However, while modern readers might be sympathetic to Stedman's personal encounters with slaves, the Narrative is a hugely ethnocentric text. Some critics argue that the book made Stedman seem like a much more consistent pro-slavery advocate than he intended. But Stedman's attitudes toward individual slaves did not coincide with his attitude toward the institution of slavery. His sympathy for the suffering slaves, expressed throughout the book, is consistently obfuscated by his opinion about slavery as an institution, which according to Werner Sollors was "complicated, its representation strongly affected by the revisions."
Stedman and women
According to the editorial introduction to the Narrative, Stedman "larded his autobiographical sketch with amorous adventures." For example, as a young man in England, Stedman had concurrent affairs with his landlord's wife and her maid until the landlady became jealous and evicted both Stedman and the maid simultaneously. Frequent encounters with slave women began on the night he arrived in Surinam and continued throughout his journey. Stedman noted many encounters in his diary, though never in explicit detail.Unsurprisingly, the personal journal that Stedman kept (and the sexual encounters mentioned therein) varies quite a bit from his published Narrative. The image-conscious Stedman, with a wife and children in England, wanted to cultivate the impression of a gentleman rather than the philanderer he might be considered on the basis of his diary. Stedman's Narrative removes the depersonalized sex with slave women and replaces it with more detail regarding his romantic relationship with Joanna.
Stedman's Joanna
Stedman met Joanna, a mulatto slave, soon after arriving in Surinam. He was immediately taken with her appearance, describing her as:Stedman was captivated by Joanna's looks and charm, and they soon began a romance. Before long they had a son together, named Johnny. Throughout his Narrative, Stedman praises Joanna's character and sweet nature. He often describes instances of her loyalty and devotion to him through his absences and illnesses:
Stedman's primary difficulty with Joanna was securing freedom for her and their son. Through Stedman's hard work Johnny was eventually freed from slavery, but not Joanna. However, when Stedman returned to Holland in June 1777, Joanna and their son stayed behind in Surinam. Stedman explained this by saying that Joanna refused to return with him:
Shortly after his return to Holland, Stedman married a Dutch woman, Adriana Wierts van Coehorn, and started a family with her. Joanna died in 1782, after which their son migrated to Europe to live with Stedman and was educated at Blundell's School
Blundell's School
Blundell's School is a co-educational day and boarding independent school located in the town of Tiverton in the county of Devon, England. The school was founded in 1604 by the will of Peter Blundell, one of the richest men in England at the time, and relocated to its present location on the...
. Johnny later served as a midshipman
Midshipman
A midshipman is an officer cadet, or a commissioned officer of the lowest rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Kenya...
in the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
and died at sea near Jamaica
Jamaica
Jamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
.
Stedman's wife and children in England
Stedman's wife was the wealthy granddaughter of a well-known Dutch engineer. Together they settled in Tiverton, England, and had five children: Sophia Charlotte, Maria Joanna, George William, Adrian, and John Cambridge. Following the death of Joanna, Johnny joined their household. Adriana made no attempt to hide her feelings of resentment toward Johnny and Stedman often protected his son from her wrath. Stedman favored his first son and later wrote a journal almost entirely devoted to accounts of Johnny's adolescence. After Johnny's death, Stedman published a poem he wrote for his son, eulogizing their relationship. The last lines are as follows:Stedman's daughters were married to prosperous men of good families. His other sons joined the military. George William served as a lieutenant in the Navy and died while attempting to board a Spanish ship off the coast of Cuba in 1803. Adrian fought in the Indian War for which he was later honored after the battle of Aliwal
Aliwal
Aliwal may refer to:*Aliwal, Taran Taran, a village in the Indian state of Punjab*Aliwal, Jalandhar, a village in the Indian state of Punjab...
against the Sikhs, and died at sea in 1849. John Cambridge served as captain of the 34th Light Infantry of the East India Company and was killed in an attack on Rangoon in 1824.
Final years and death
Little is known about the final years of John Gabriel Stedman; curiously, the "Army List" continued to print his name until 1805, after he had been dead for eight years. On 5 July 1793, he was commissioned as a major in the second battalion of the Scots Brigade. He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 3 May 1796. In spite of this documentation, the title page of his book claims he reached the rank of captain. According to the Dictionary of National BiographyDictionary of National Biography
The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885...
, family tradition maintains that Stedman suffered a severe accident around 1796 which prevented him from commanding a regiment at Gibraltar
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region...
. He retired to Tiverton, Devon. Instructions left by Stedman before his death requested that he be buried in the parish of Bickleigh
Bickleigh, Mid Devon
Bickleigh is a village and civil parish in the Mid Devon district of Devon, England, about four miles south of Tiverton. It is in the former hundred of Hayridge. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 239...
next to gypsy king Bampfylde Moore Carew
Bampfylde Moore Carew
Bampfylde Moore Carew was an English rogue, vagabond and impostor, who claimed to be King of the Beggars.He was the son of Reverend Theodore Carew, rector of Bickleigh. The Carews were a well-established Devonshire family. Although they had a reputation for adventurousness, Bampfylde Moore Carew...
. He asked specifically to be interred at precisely midnight by torchlight. Stedman's final request was apparently not honored in full, as his unmarked grave lies in front of the vestry door, on the opposite side of the church from Carew.
External links
- Narrative of Joanna; An Emancipated Slave, of Surinam. Boston: Isaac Knapp, 1838.
- English 404, Black Romanticism, A wiki project by the students at Penn State University who compiled much of the information included on this page.
- Bickleigh, burial ground of Stedman, information about Stedman's apparently unmarked grave site.