Józef Beck
Encyclopedia
was a Polish statesman
, diplomat
, military officer, and close associate of Józef Piłsudski. He is most famous for being Polish foreign minister in 1930s, when he was involved in territorial disputes with Nazi Germany that subsequently led to the Invasion of Poland and the Second World War.
started, Beck was a student at a college of Engineering. After the outbreak of World War I, Beck was a member of the clandestine Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa, or POW) founded in October 1914 by Piłsudski. Joining in 1914 Beck served until 1917 in the First Brigade of the Polish Legions
, and was aide to Piłsudski. When the Brigade was interned, Beck escaped. After Poland regained independence, Beck was assigned as a commander of an artillery battery and assigned to the General Staff. Beck served as military attaché to France between 1922 and 1923. The French disliked Beck to the point of even spreading lies about him. In 1926 he helped to carry out the May 1926 military coup d'état
that brought Piłsudski to de facto governmental power.
In 1926-1930 Beck served as chief of staff to Poland's Minister of Military Affairs, and in 1930-1932 as Vice Prime Minister and Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs. Groomed by Piłsudski to implement Poland's foreign policy
, in 1932 he took office as Minister of Foreign Affairs, a post he was to hold until the outbreak of World War II
.
and the Soviet Union
. Pursuant to this, in July 1932 he concluded a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union
, and in January 1934 a German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact
. He sought guarantees of security for Poland from the western powers: from Great Britain
and France
. His signal accomplishment in this realm was securing such guarantees from Britain in the spring of 1939, when it had become clear that Germany would not be swayed from embarking on war, and renewal of the Franco-Polish Alliance. Beck's policies could not avert war, but they did ultimately cause Germany's attack on Poland to embroil Germany in conflict with the western powers.
Beck detested the Minorities Treaty, guaranteeing the rights of Poland's Jewish, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Lithuanian and German minorities, that the Allies had forced on Central European states under the 1919 Versailles Treaty, . Beck argued that, while Poland and Czechoslovakia were forced to respect the rights of their respective German minorities, the Polish minorities in Germany and the Soviet Union were not so protected. In addition, Beck resented that countries, such as Germany, used the Minorities Treaty to exert pressure on neighbouring states and to become involved in the internal affairs of Poland. In September 1934, Beck renounced the Minorities Treaty after the Soviet Union was admitted to the League of Nations
.
Largely because the League of Nations had been the principal guarantor of the Minorities Treaty, Beck had a strong dislike for the League, and made little effort to hide his disdain for the League.
After Piłsudski's death in May 1935, a power sharing agreement was agreed to by the various Piłsudskite factions, led by General (later Marshal) Edward Rydz-Śmigły, President Ignacy Mościcki
, and Beck himself. These three individuals effectively dominated the Sanacja
(Sanation) and collectively ruled Poland until the outbreak of World War II. Beck more or less had a free hand in formulating Poland's foreign policy. The stability of the ruling group was weakened, owing to personal conflicts within it, and none of the three men managed to completely assert their dominance during the late 1930s. The period from 1935 to 1939 is often described by historians as a "dictatorship without a dictator."
Beck also actively explored possibilities of realizing his mentor Piłsudski's concept of Międzymorze
("Tween-Seas"): of a federation of central
and eastern Europe
an countries stretching from the Baltic Sea
to the Black Sea
and — in later variants — from the Arctic Ocean
to the Mediterranean Sea
. Such a polity
, between Germany in the west and the Soviet Union in the east, might have been strong enough to deter both from military intervention. Beck realized that for the immediate future there was no realistic chance of building such a European superstate, but he was prepared to settle for a diplomatic bloc led by Poland, referred to as a "Third Europe", that might become the nucleus of a Międzymorze federation.
Beck's "Third Europe" diplomatic concept comprised a bloc of Italy
, Poland
, Yugoslavia
, Hungary
, and Romania
. It was toward this goal that Beck devoted most of his energy during his time as Foreign Minister. His efforts failed because
The Czechoslovak government was not interested in an alliance with Poland. Beneš claimed when Beck became Foreign Minister, he proposed an alliance against Germany, but Beneš refused. Beck tried again in 1934 to settle differences with Czechoslovakia. Beneš saw the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact as a ‘stab in the back’. Beck disliked Czechoslovakia
and its Foreign Minister (later President) Edvard Beneš
, who in his turn reciprocated these feelings in full. By contrast, Beck's relations with the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy
, were good. Beck often toyed with the idea that Slovakia should be returned to Hungary (apart from a small part going to Poland), though he never attempted to actually do this (except that Poland did in 1938-1939 successfully work with Hungary for a restored common Polish-Hungarian border, at Czechoslovakia's expense: see article on the First Vienna Award
). The chances of a Polish-Czechoslovak alliance in the 1930s were never good, but the mutual hatred between Beck and Beneš ended what slight chances there were. Still it has also been argued that it was not the personal acrimony but a realisation that only France could help against Germany hence Polish/Czechoslovak relations were not critical.
In the early 1950s, there was a major historical debate on the pages of the Times Literary Supplement between the British historian Sir Lewis Bernstein Namier
and the former French foreign minister Georges Bonnet
. Namier alleged that Bonnet had snubbed an offer by Beck in May 1938 to have Poland come to the aid of Czechoslovakia
in the event of a German attack. Bonnet denied that such an offer had been made, which led Namier to accuse Bonnet of seeking to falsify the record. Namier concluded the debate in 1953 with words "The Polish offer, for what it was worth, was first torpedoed by Bonnet the statesmen, and next obliterated by Bonnet the historian".
Beck played a decisive role in during the months preceding the start of the Second World War, staunchly refusing Nazi German demands to subordinate Poland to Nazi policies and goals in Europe by joining Anti-Comintern Pact
directed against the Soviet Union
, giving away vital Polish territory connecting it to the port of Gdynia in the form of extraterritorial highway that was to run across Polish Pomorze (Pomerania
) to East Prussia
and Nazi demands regarding Free City of Danzig
in exchange for vogue promises by Hitler to respect Polish borders and extension of non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany.
Even in 1937, Hitler continued to assure Beck that Germany had no claims on Danzig. But at the start of 1939, Hitler changed his earlier position and now laid claim to Danzig, adding that military force would not be used. In April 1939, Beck was in London to agree to the terms of the British-Polish aid treaty. Beck famously voiced his refusal of German demands in a speech on May 5, 1939, less than four months before Adolf Hitler
's military attack on Poland:
To Hitler
, though, whether Poland accepted Germany's demands or not, was of little concern, given Hitler's intent to achieve a common boundary with the Soviet Union
. Whether this was accomplished through alliances with the Baltic countries, or through their annexation by Germany or the Soviet Union, was in principle irrelevant.
Similarly, Beck refused an agreement proposed by Great Britain which involved the country's cooperation with France and the Soviet Union. In doing so, Poland maintained a relatively neutral stance towards both of its powerful neighbours.
A third proposal soon followed, once again elaborated by Great Britain, which promised support to the Polish Government, should the country's borders be endangered. This time around, Beck accepted it.
His hopes for an alliance with Britain thwarted, Hitler shifted his focus to the Soviet Union, with whom Germany would celebrate a non-aggression pact
, in an attempt to settle the situation with Russia following the resolution of the impending opening of a Western front.
At the same time, Great Britain and France also sought an alliance with Soviet Union. Nevertheless, while Germany could offer the Soviets considerable benefits, including vast territories in Eastern Europe and Finland, the Allies could only allow Soviet Union to make use of Polish territory, under vague circumstances and limited conditions (in fact, even this small concession on Beck's part was only agreed when the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was very much inevitable).
In August 2009 the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service claimed that Beck was a German agent. Polish media reacted angrily to the allegation.
, it was Beck who called on Poland's allies (France and Britain) to find out when they would enter the war to support Poland. After Poland had been overrun by its neighbours in September 1939 in a historic "fourth partition
" of the country, on the night of September 17–18, 1939, Beck withdrew together with the rest of the Polish government into Romania
, where he was interned by the authorities. It was then that he wrote a volume of memoirs, Ostatni raport (Final Report).
He died in Stanesti
, Romania, June 5, 1944 after developing tuberculosis. Beck was survived by his son Andrzej who is active in the Polish community.
The criticism of Beck has been challenged by historians. Norman Davies describes them as “exaggerated”. Peter Stachura felt it “misplaced”. His policies were also supported by Prof. Anna Cienciala.
In May 1991, Beck's remains were repatriated to Poland and interred at Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery
, one of Poland's pantheons of the great and valiant.
Statesman
A statesman is usually a politician or other notable public figure who has had a long and respected career in politics or government at the national and international level. As a term of respect, it is usually left to supporters or commentators to use the term...
, diplomat
Diplomat
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to conduct diplomacy with another state or international organization. The main functions of diplomats revolve around the representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state, as well as the promotion of information and...
, military officer, and close associate of Józef Piłsudski. He is most famous for being Polish foreign minister in 1930s, when he was involved in territorial disputes with Nazi Germany that subsequently led to the Invasion of Poland and the Second World War.
Early life
When World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
started, Beck was a student at a college of Engineering. After the outbreak of World War I, Beck was a member of the clandestine Polish Military Organization (Polska Organizacja Wojskowa, or POW) founded in October 1914 by Piłsudski. Joining in 1914 Beck served until 1917 in the First Brigade of the Polish Legions
Polish Legions in World War I
Polish Legions was the name of Polish armed forces created in August 1914 in Galicia. Thanks to the efforts of KSSN and the Polish members of the Austrian parliament, the unit became an independent formation of the Austro-Hungarian Army...
, and was aide to Piłsudski. When the Brigade was interned, Beck escaped. After Poland regained independence, Beck was assigned as a commander of an artillery battery and assigned to the General Staff. Beck served as military attaché to France between 1922 and 1923. The French disliked Beck to the point of even spreading lies about him. In 1926 he helped to carry out the May 1926 military coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
that brought Piłsudski to de facto governmental power.
In 1926-1930 Beck served as chief of staff to Poland's Minister of Military Affairs, and in 1930-1932 as Vice Prime Minister and Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs. Groomed by Piłsudski to implement Poland's foreign policy
Foreign policy
A country's foreign policy, also called the foreign relations policy, consists of self-interest strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its national interests and to achieve its goals within international relations milieu. The approaches are strategically employed to interact with other countries...
, in 1932 he took office as Minister of Foreign Affairs, a post he was to hold until the outbreak of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
Foreign Minister
In his international diplomacy, Beck sought to maintain a fine balance in Poland's relations with its two powerful neighbours, GermanyGermany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
. Pursuant to this, in July 1932 he concluded a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union
Soviet-Polish Non-Aggression Pact
The Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact ) was an international treaty of non-aggression signed in 1932 by representatives of Poland and the USSR. The pact was unilaterally broken by the Soviet Union on September 17, 1939, during the Nazi and Soviet invasion of Poland.-Background:After the...
, and in January 1934 a German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact
German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact
The German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact was an international treaty between Nazi Germany and the Second Polish Republic signed on January 26, 1934. In it, both countries pledged to resolve their problems through bilateral negotiations and to forgo armed conflict for a period of ten years...
. He sought guarantees of security for Poland from the western powers: from Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
and France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. His signal accomplishment in this realm was securing such guarantees from Britain in the spring of 1939, when it had become clear that Germany would not be swayed from embarking on war, and renewal of the Franco-Polish Alliance. Beck's policies could not avert war, but they did ultimately cause Germany's attack on Poland to embroil Germany in conflict with the western powers.
Beck detested the Minorities Treaty, guaranteeing the rights of Poland's Jewish, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Lithuanian and German minorities, that the Allies had forced on Central European states under the 1919 Versailles Treaty, . Beck argued that, while Poland and Czechoslovakia were forced to respect the rights of their respective German minorities, the Polish minorities in Germany and the Soviet Union were not so protected. In addition, Beck resented that countries, such as Germany, used the Minorities Treaty to exert pressure on neighbouring states and to become involved in the internal affairs of Poland. In September 1934, Beck renounced the Minorities Treaty after the Soviet Union was admitted to the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
.
Largely because the League of Nations had been the principal guarantor of the Minorities Treaty, Beck had a strong dislike for the League, and made little effort to hide his disdain for the League.
After Piłsudski's death in May 1935, a power sharing agreement was agreed to by the various Piłsudskite factions, led by General (later Marshal) Edward Rydz-Śmigły, President Ignacy Mościcki
Ignacy Moscicki
Ignacy Mościcki was a Polish chemist, politician, and President of Poland . He was the longest-serving President of Poland .-Life:...
, and Beck himself. These three individuals effectively dominated the Sanacja
Sanacja
Sanation was a Polish political movement that came to power after Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 Coup d'État. Sanation took its name from his watchword—the moral "sanation" of the Polish body politic...
(Sanation) and collectively ruled Poland until the outbreak of World War II. Beck more or less had a free hand in formulating Poland's foreign policy. The stability of the ruling group was weakened, owing to personal conflicts within it, and none of the three men managed to completely assert their dominance during the late 1930s. The period from 1935 to 1939 is often described by historians as a "dictatorship without a dictator."
Miedzymorze
Międzymorze was a plan, pursued after World War I by Polish leader Józef Piłsudski, for a federation, under Poland's aegis, of Central and Eastern European countries...
("Tween-Seas"): of a federation of central
Central Europe
Central Europe or alternatively Middle Europe is a region of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe...
and eastern Europe
Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe is the eastern part of Europe. The term has widely disparate geopolitical, geographical, cultural and socioeconomic readings, which makes it highly context-dependent and even volatile, and there are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region"...
an countries stretching from the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
to the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
and — in later variants — from the Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions...
to the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
. Such a polity
Polity
Polity is a form of government Aristotle developed in his search for a government that could be most easily incorporated and used by the largest amount of people groups, or states...
, between Germany in the west and the Soviet Union in the east, might have been strong enough to deter both from military intervention. Beck realized that for the immediate future there was no realistic chance of building such a European superstate, but he was prepared to settle for a diplomatic bloc led by Poland, referred to as a "Third Europe", that might become the nucleus of a Międzymorze federation.
Beck's "Third Europe" diplomatic concept comprised a bloc of Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
, Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia refers to three political entities that existed successively on the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century....
, Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
, and Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
. It was toward this goal that Beck devoted most of his energy during his time as Foreign Minister. His efforts failed because
- both Italy and Hungary preferred to align themselves with Germany rather than Poland;
- the dispute between Romania and Hungary over TransylvaniaTransylvaniaTransylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
doomed efforts to include them in a common bloc; - the desire of both Fascist ItalyKingdom of Italy (1861–1946)The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
and Hungary to partition Yugoslavia between them blocked any effort to include Rome, Budapest and Belgrade in an alliance; - none of the four states that were meant to form the "Third Europe" with Poland was interested in accepting Polish leadership.
Road to war
In 1936, the Camp of National Unity (OZON) was formed but Beck refused to join.The Czechoslovak government was not interested in an alliance with Poland. Beneš claimed when Beck became Foreign Minister, he proposed an alliance against Germany, but Beneš refused. Beck tried again in 1934 to settle differences with Czechoslovakia. Beneš saw the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact as a ‘stab in the back’. Beck disliked Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
and its Foreign Minister (later President) Edvard Beneš
Edvard Beneš
Edvard Beneš was a leader of the Czechoslovak independence movement, Minister of Foreign Affairs and the second President of Czechoslovakia. He was known to be a skilled diplomat.- Youth :...
, who in his turn reciprocated these feelings in full. By contrast, Beck's relations with the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy
Miklós Horthy
Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya was the Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary during the interwar years and throughout most of World War II, serving from 1 March 1920 to 15 October 1944. Horthy was styled "His Serene Highness the Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary" .Admiral Horthy was an officer of the...
, were good. Beck often toyed with the idea that Slovakia should be returned to Hungary (apart from a small part going to Poland), though he never attempted to actually do this (except that Poland did in 1938-1939 successfully work with Hungary for a restored common Polish-Hungarian border, at Czechoslovakia's expense: see article on the First Vienna Award
First Vienna Award
The First Vienna Award was the result of the First Vienna Arbitration, which took place at Vienna's Belvedere Palace on November 2, 1938. The Arbitration and Award were direct consequences of the Munich Agreement...
). The chances of a Polish-Czechoslovak alliance in the 1930s were never good, but the mutual hatred between Beck and Beneš ended what slight chances there were. Still it has also been argued that it was not the personal acrimony but a realisation that only France could help against Germany hence Polish/Czechoslovak relations were not critical.
In the early 1950s, there was a major historical debate on the pages of the Times Literary Supplement between the British historian Sir Lewis Bernstein Namier
Lewis Bernstein Namier
Sir Lewis Bernstein Namier was an English historian. He was born Ludwik Niemirowski in Wola Okrzejska in what was then part of the Russian Empire and is today in Poland.-Life:...
and the former French foreign minister Georges Bonnet
Georges Bonnet
Not to be confused with the French Socialist Georges MonnetGeorges-Étienne Bonnet was a French politician and leading figure in the Radical-Socialist Party.- Early career :...
. Namier alleged that Bonnet had snubbed an offer by Beck in May 1938 to have Poland come to the aid of Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
in the event of a German attack. Bonnet denied that such an offer had been made, which led Namier to accuse Bonnet of seeking to falsify the record. Namier concluded the debate in 1953 with words "The Polish offer, for what it was worth, was first torpedoed by Bonnet the statesmen, and next obliterated by Bonnet the historian".
Beck played a decisive role in during the months preceding the start of the Second World War, staunchly refusing Nazi German demands to subordinate Poland to Nazi policies and goals in Europe by joining Anti-Comintern Pact
Anti-Comintern Pact
The Anti-Comintern Pact was an Anti-Communist pact concluded between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan on November 25, 1936 and was directed against the Communist International ....
directed against the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
, giving away vital Polish territory connecting it to the port of Gdynia in the form of extraterritorial highway that was to run across Polish Pomorze (Pomerania
Pomerania
Pomerania is a historical region on the south shore of the Baltic Sea. Divided between Germany and Poland, it stretches roughly from the Recknitz River near Stralsund in the West, via the Oder River delta near Szczecin, to the mouth of the Vistula River near Gdańsk in the East...
) to East Prussia
East Prussia
East Prussia is the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.East Prussia...
and Nazi demands regarding Free City of Danzig
Free City of Danzig
The Free City of Danzig was a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig and surrounding areas....
in exchange for vogue promises by Hitler to respect Polish borders and extension of non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany.
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
's military attack on Poland:
To Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
, though, whether Poland accepted Germany's demands or not, was of little concern, given Hitler's intent to achieve a common boundary with the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
. Whether this was accomplished through alliances with the Baltic countries, or through their annexation by Germany or the Soviet Union, was in principle irrelevant.
Similarly, Beck refused an agreement proposed by Great Britain which involved the country's cooperation with France and the Soviet Union. In doing so, Poland maintained a relatively neutral stance towards both of its powerful neighbours.
A third proposal soon followed, once again elaborated by Great Britain, which promised support to the Polish Government, should the country's borders be endangered. This time around, Beck accepted it.
His hopes for an alliance with Britain thwarted, Hitler shifted his focus to the Soviet Union, with whom Germany would celebrate a non-aggression pact
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, named after the Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov and the German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop, was an agreement officially titled the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union and signed in Moscow in the late hours of 23 August 1939...
, in an attempt to settle the situation with Russia following the resolution of the impending opening of a Western front.
At the same time, Great Britain and France also sought an alliance with Soviet Union. Nevertheless, while Germany could offer the Soviets considerable benefits, including vast territories in Eastern Europe and Finland, the Allies could only allow Soviet Union to make use of Polish territory, under vague circumstances and limited conditions (in fact, even this small concession on Beck's part was only agreed when the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was very much inevitable).
World War II
Following the invasion of Poland by Germany at the start of World War IIWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, it was Beck who called on Poland's allies (France and Britain) to find out when they would enter the war to support Poland. After Poland had been overrun by its neighbours in September 1939 in a historic "fourth partition
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
" of the country, on the night of September 17–18, 1939, Beck withdrew together with the rest of the Polish government into Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, where he was interned by the authorities. It was then that he wrote a volume of memoirs, Ostatni raport (Final Report).
He died in Stanesti
Stanesti
Stăneşti may refer to several places in Romania:* Stăneşti, a commune in Gorj County* Stăneşti, a commune in Giurgiu County* Stăneşti, a commune in Vâlcea County* Stăneşti, a village in Poiana Vadului Commune, Alba County...
, Romania, June 5, 1944 after developing tuberculosis. Beck was survived by his son Andrzej who is active in the Polish community.
The criticism of Beck has been challenged by historians. Norman Davies describes them as “exaggerated”. Peter Stachura felt it “misplaced”. His policies were also supported by Prof. Anna Cienciala.
In May 1991, Beck's remains were repatriated to Poland and interred at Warsaw's Powązki Military Cemetery
Powązki Military Cemetery
Powązki Military Cemetery is an old military cemetery located in the Wola district, western part of Warsaw, Poland. The cemetery is often confused with the older Powązki Cemetery, known colloquially as "Old Powązki"...
, one of Poland's pantheons of the great and valiant.
See also
- List of Poles
- Amy Elizabeth ThorpeAmy Elizabeth ThorpeAmy Elizabeth "Betty" Thorpe was, according to William Stephenson of British Security Coordination, an American spy, codenamed "Cynthia," who worked for his agency during World War II...
, an American spy working for the British who delivered Beck's Enigma codes to the Allies