Kakinomoto no Hitomaro
Encyclopedia
Kakinomoto no Hitomaro (柿本 人麻呂; c. 662 – 710) was a Japanese
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
poet
Japanese poetry
Japanese poets first encountered Chinese poetry during the Tang Dynasty. It took them several hundred years to digest the foreign impact, make it a part of their culture and merge it with their literary tradition in their mother tongue, and begin to develop the diversity of their native poetry. For...
and aristocrat of the late Asuka period
Asuka period
The , was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710 , although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period...
. He was the most prominent of the poets included in the Man'yōshū, and was particularly represented in volumes 1 and 2. In Japan, he is considered one of the Thirty-six Poetry Immortals
Thirty-six Poetry Immortals
The Thirty-six Poetry Immortals are a group of Japanese poets of the Nara, Asuka and Heian periods selected by Fujiwara no Kintō as exemplars of Japanese poetic ability. There are five female poets among them...
. After the Heian period
Heian period
The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height...
he was often called "Hito-maru" (人丸).
Works and Style
Iwami Province
was an old province of Japan in the area that is today the western part of Shimane Prefecture. It was sometimes called . Iwami bordered Aki, Bingo, Izumo, Nagato, and Suō provinces.In the Heian era the capital was at modern-day Hamada....
", "The Bay of Tsunu", and "I loved her like the leaves." 19 of his chōka (or nagauta, "long poems") were included in the Man'yōshū and 75 or so tanka (or mijikauta, "short poems") were likewise selected. Many of his poems were written on the topics of public occasions; such as his "Lament for Prince Takechi
Prince Takechi
was a member of the royal family in Japan during the Asuka Period. He was the eldest son of Emperor Tenmu. He fought on the side of his father in the Jinshin War , a battle of succession, which resulted in his father becoming Emperor...
", written as part of the mourning ceremonies for Takechi. Other poems were written on occasions in his life when he was particularly moved: parting from his wife, mourning for his wife, or on seeing a corpse.
His style makes use of figures of speech such as makurakotoba
Makurakotoba
, literally "pillow word", are figures of speech used in Japanese waka poetry, where epithets are used in association with certain words. Their usage is akin to “grey-eyed Athena” of in the Ancient Greek epics of Homer...
, jokotoba
Jokotoba
, literally meaning "preface word", is a figure of speech found in Japanese waka . Jokotoba expressions are set before certain words, and makes use of wordplay through similes, kakekotoba and homonyms.- History and usage :...
, and ouin (押韻) or rhyme
Rhyme
A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words and is most often used in poetry and songs. The word "rhyme" may also refer to a short poem, such as a rhyming couplet or other brief rhyming poem such as nursery rhymes.-Etymology:...
. Among his chōka, he makes use of complex and variant taiku (対句) or antithesis
Antithesis
Antithesis is a counter-proposition and denotes a direct contrast to the original proposition...
. In his tanka, Hitomaro makes use of nearly 140 makurakotoba, among which half are not seen in previous works, which attests to his originality.In addition, his poetry includes kotodama
Kotodama
refers to the Japanese belief that mystical powers dwell in words and names. English translations include "soul of language", "spirit of language", "power of language", "power word", "magic word", and "sacred sound"...
such as:
- Shikishima no / Yamato no kuni ha / kototama no / tasukuru kuni zo / masakiku ari koso
In his hymns and elegies, he uses expressions such "Should his highness be a god" (大君は 神にしませば), "Being a god, becoming to a god" (神ながら 神さびせすと), and "Prince of the sun, shining on high" (高照らす 日の皇子) to highly glorify the emperor as an ascendant divinity and express his deeds. While examples of such expressions of the emperor as an ascendant divinity do appear in ancient historical works and folk songs, they are featured so prominently in Hitomaro's works as to make him stand out among all other contemporary poets. Further, such expressions quickly declined in use after Hitomaro, as the national enforcement of ritsuryō
Ritsuryo
is the historical law system based on the philosophies of Confucianism and Chinese Legalism in Japan. The political system in accord to Ritsuryō is called "Ritsuryō-sei"...
regulations between Emperor Temmu's reign and Jitō's court had encouraged him. In effect, such expressions can be seen as a product of the regulations of the time.
In regards to his love poetry, there are a number of extant chōka to women, and it was used to be thought by some, such as Mokichi Saitō, that he held numerous wives and mistresses. It is a more widely accepted interpretation today that Hitomaro is composing love stories rather than putting to verse his own experiences. Regardless if the contents are fact or fiction, Hitomaro placed emphasis on married life together, and the love poems capture his expressive nature.
The following waka makes use of both makurakotoba
Makurakotoba
, literally "pillow word", are figures of speech used in Japanese waka poetry, where epithets are used in association with certain words. Their usage is akin to “grey-eyed Athena” of in the Ancient Greek epics of Homer...
and jokotoba
Jokotoba
, literally meaning "preface word", is a figure of speech found in Japanese waka . Jokotoba expressions are set before certain words, and makes use of wordplay through similes, kakekotoba and homonyms.- History and usage :...
and is attributed to Hitomaro in Fujiwara no Teika's compilation of the Hyakunin Isshu
Hyakunin Isshu
is a traditional anthology style of compiling Japanese waka poetry where each contributor writes one poem for the anthology. Literally, it translates to "one hundred people, one poem [each]"...
. The source of this poem, however, is from a variant tradition of Man'yōshū Vol. 12, 2802, and there is no clear proof that it is a poem by Hitomaro. As the poem was preserved in the Shūi Wakashū, it may have been an imitation of Hitomaro's style like many other poems attributed to Hitomaro after the Heian period:
足日木乃 山鳥之尾乃 四垂尾之 長永夜乎 一鴨將宿
あしびきの 山鳥の尾の しだり尾の ながながし夜を ひとりかも寝む
- Ashihiki no / yamadori no wo no / shidari wo no / naganagashi yoru wo / hitori kamo nemu
Rough translation: When it becomes night, like the mountain birds that part and sleep in sad loneliness, what a long, long night I may sleep in sad loneliness.
Life
Nihon Shoki
The , sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical...
nor in Shoku Nihongi
Shoku Nihongi
The is an imperially commissioned Japanese history text. Completed in 797, it is the second of the Six National Histories, coming directly after the Nihon Shoki and followed by Nihon Kōki. Fujiwara no Tsugutada and Sugano no Mamichi served as the primary editors...
("History of Japan" II). All our primary sources about him come from the prefaces and commentaries on the Man'yōshū where he is designated as either the composer or collector of waka
Waka (poetry)
Waka or Yamato uta is a genre of classical Japanese verse and one of the major genres of Japanese literature...
poetry.
Generally, he is thought to have began working in the court under Emperor Temmu
Emperor Temmu
was the 40th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Temmu's reign lasted from 672 until his death in 686.-Traditional narrative:...
's 9th year (680 CE), and was active as a poet Temmu's reign and likely flourished under Empress Jitō
Empress Jito
was the 41st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Jitō's reign spanned the years from 686 through 697.In the history of Japan, Jitō was the third of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant. The two female monarchs before Jitō were Suiko and Kōgyoku/Saimei...
. However, since Kakinomoto composed a pair of poems mourning the death of a lady in the court of Emperor Tenji
Emperor Tenji
, also known as Emperor Tenchi, was the 38th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Tenji's reign spanned the years from 661 through 671.-Traditional narrative:...
at Oumi, there are some scholars like Kitayama Shigeo (北山茂夫) who believe he began work at the court in Oumi.
According to the Edo period
Edo period
The , or , is a division of Japanese history which was ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family, running from 1603 to 1868. The political entity of this period was the Tokugawa shogunate....
scholar Kamo no Mabuchi
Kamo no Mabuchi
was a Japanese poet and philologist of the Edo period.Mabuchi conducted research into the spirit of ancient Japan through his studies of the Man'yōshū and other works of ancient literature...
, he served under Prince Kusakabe, and while this is often held as true, there is actually very little concrete evidence for this claim. On the other hand, since he presented poems to numerous princes and princesses (such as Yuge no Miko (弓削皇子), Prince Toneri, and Niitabeshin no U (新田部親王)), it is thought to be unlikely that he was in the service of a single prince. Others, such as the Japanese scholars Itō Haku and Hashimoto Tatsuo, believe that he was an imperial poet of the court, but no such position as "imperial poet" existed during the Asuka period
Asuka period
The , was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710 , although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period...
. The group of Hitomaro's poems which can be dated within a certain period does overlap approximately with Empress Jitō's ascension and death, and so it is thought that the empress was a motivational force for Hitomaro's poetry.
From waka mourning the death of a man from Sanuki Province
Sanuki Province
was an old province of Japan on the island of Shikoku, with the same boundaries as modern Kagawa Prefecture. It was sometimes called .It faced the Inland Sea and bordered on Awa and Iyo Provinces. Across Naruto strait it bordered Awaji Province too. Administratively it was included as a part of...
, and a farewell poem at Kamoyama (Mt. Kamo) in Iwami province with elegies (banka, 挽歌) mourning his own death, many have seen this as Hitomaro acting as a palace official traveling to various provinces and reaching the end of his life in Iwami
Iwami Province
was an old province of Japan in the area that is today the western part of Shimane Prefecture. It was sometimes called . Iwami bordered Aki, Bingo, Izumo, Nagato, and Suō provinces.In the Heian era the capital was at modern-day Hamada....
. According to the Japanese scholar Itō Haku, however, this farewell poem is a folk drama portraying Hitomaro's own death, and the theory that the poem is a later counterfeit has also been suggested.
Further, from waka mourning the death of Princess Asuka
Princess Asuka
was a Japanese princess during the Asuka Period. She was a daughter of Emperor Tenji. Her mother was Lady Tachibana, whose father was Abe no Kurahashi Maro....
, who died in the 4th year of Emperor Mommu
Emperor Mommu
was the 42nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Mommu's reign spanned the years from 697 through 707.-Traditional narrative:Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Karu-shinnō....
's reign (700 CE), it is certain that Hitomaro was still present at the capitol after Prince Kusakabe's death (689 CE). Because there are no works certain extant from the later half of the Fujiwara-kyō
Fujiwara-kyo
was the Imperial capital of Japan for sixteen years, between 694 and 710. It was located in Yamato Province , having been moved from nearby Asuka. However, in the Nihon Shoki, the name Fujiwara-kyō had never been used...
period or after the capitol moved to Nara
Nara period
The of the history of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794. Empress Gemmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō . Except for 5 years , when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital, Nagaoka-kyō, in 784...
, it is thought that Hitomaro died before 710 CE.
When he was around 50 years old, there are records indicating that he was appointed to a provincial office in Iwami Province
Iwami Province
was an old province of Japan in the area that is today the western part of Shimane Prefecture. It was sometimes called . Iwami bordered Aki, Bingo, Izumo, Nagato, and Suō provinces.In the Heian era the capital was at modern-day Hamada....
— today the western part of Shimane Prefecture
Shimane Prefecture
is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūgoku region on Honshū island. The capital is Matsue. It is the second least populous prefecture in Japan, after its eastern neighbor Tottori. The prefecture has an area elongated from east to west facing the Chūgoku Mountain Range on the south side and to...
. In 708, Zokunihongi reports that a "Kakinomoto no Saru" (another member of the Kakinomoto clan) died; the Japanese thinker Umehara Takeshi
Umehara Takeshi
was born in Miyagi Prefecture in Tōhoku in 1925 and graduated from the philosophical faculty of Kyoto University in 1948. He taught philosophy at Ritsumeikan University and was subsequently appointed rector of the Kyoto Municipal University of Fine Arts...
has suggested that this Saru (柿本佐留) and Hitomaro were the same person.
Family background
The Kakinomoto clan into which Hitomaro was born was an aristocratic court clan of middling prestige and rank. In the clan, he was referred to as Ason, signifying that he held the third highest title of eight. In earlier years, the clan served the court mainly by holding religious ceremonies with singing and reciting of poems. It had a deep relation to the Sarume clan whose legendary founder was Ame-no-Uzume, the dancer goddess. It can be supposed Hitomaro grew up in an artistic atmosphere.The Kakinomoto name can be traced to the 4th-century C.E. aristocratic Kasuga family, descended from Emperor Kōshō
Emperor Kosho
; also known as Mimatsuhikokaeshine no Mikoto; was the fifth emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 475 to 393 BC, but he may have lived in the early...
. According to the Sekishū Masuda family-tree diagram (石州益田家系図) from the Shoshikechō (諸氏家牒), his father was Kakinomoto no Ooba (柿本大庭) and his brother's name was Kakinomoto no Saru (柿本 猨/佐留). In a different document, Hitomaro (人万呂/人麿) is recorded as the Saru's son, but this remains doubtful. In the same document, Hitomaro's son is given as Ninomaro (蓑麿), whose mother is Yosami Koromoya-musumego (依羅衣屋娘子). His descendants established themselves in the Iwami province
Iwami Province
was an old province of Japan in the area that is today the western part of Shimane Prefecture. It was sometimes called . Iwami bordered Aki, Bingo, Izumo, Nagato, and Suō provinces.In the Heian era the capital was at modern-day Hamada....
as local administrators of Mino, and from the Kamakura period
Kamakura period
The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura Shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo....
became part of the regional warrior caste
Ji-samurai
The ', also known as ', were lords of smaller rural domains in feudal Japan. They often used their relatively small plots of land for intensive and diversified forms of agriculture; the kokujin sought to be as productive and self-sufficient as possible, hoping to gain wealth and power...
under the name of the Masuda clan
Masuda clan
Masuda clan was one of Kunishū in Iwami Province , Japan, from the 13th century until 1600. In the Middle Ages, Kunishū was the title given to a local lord or a leader of warriors .- History :...
. As there are no historical sources contemporary to Hitomaro's time, these historicity of these documents are difficult to verify.
Fame
In the prefatory essay to the Kokin Wakashū compilation of poetry, Ki no TsurayukiKi no Tsurayuki
was a Japanese author, poet and courtier of the Heian period.Tsurayuki was a son of Ki no Mochiyuki. He became a waka poet in the 890s. In 905, under the order of Emperor Daigo, he was one of four poets selected to compile the Kokin Wakashū, an anthology of poetry.After holding a few offices in...
called him Uta no Hijiri — a divine poet equal to the Nara period
Nara period
The of the history of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794. Empress Gemmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō . Except for 5 years , when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital, Nagaoka-kyō, in 784...
poet Yamabe no Akahito
Yamabe no Akahito
Yamabe no Akahito was a poet of the Nara period in Japan. The Man'yōshū, an ancient anthology, contains 13 choka and 37 tanka of his. Many of his poems were composed during journeys with Emperor Shōmu between 724 and 736...
, a high regard echoed by later poets such as Fujiwara no Teika
Fujiwara no Teika
Fujiwara no Teika , also known as Fujiwara no Sadaie or Sada-ie, was a Japanese poet, critic, calligrapher, novelist, anthologist, scribe, and scholar of the late Heian and early Kamakura periods...
. Ikeda Munemasa wrote Portrait of Hitomaro and His Waka Poem. Modern waka poets like Masaoka Shiki
Masaoka Shiki
, pen-name of Masaoka Noboru , was a Japanese poet, author, and literary critic in Meiji period Japan. Shiki is regarded as a major figure in the development of modern haiku poetry...
and Saito Mokichi
Saito Mokichi
was a Japanese poet of the Taishō period, a member of Araragi school, and a psychiatrist.The psychiatrist Shigeta Saitō is his first son, the novelist Morio Kita is his second son and the essayist Yuka Saitō is his granddaughter....
considered him one of greatest poets in the history of Japanese literature.
In Masuda, Iwami Province
Iwami Province
was an old province of Japan in the area that is today the western part of Shimane Prefecture. It was sometimes called . Iwami bordered Aki, Bingo, Izumo, Nagato, and Suō provinces.In the Heian era the capital was at modern-day Hamada....
in Shimane Prefecture, there are two Kakinomoto shrines, Takatsu Kakinomoto Shrine and Toda Kakinomoto Shrine. It is said that Kamoshima in Masuda is Hitomaro's death place and Toda is Hitomaro's birth place. The priest of Toda Kakinomoto Shrine is Ayabe, and he is the 49th of Hitomaro's mother's line.
In Akashi
Akashi, Hyogo
is a city located in southern Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan, on the Seto Inland Sea west of Kobe.As of April 1, 2011, the city has an estimated population of 290,776, with 117,392 households, and a population density of 5,907.68 persons per km²...
, Hyōgo Prefecture
Hyogo Prefecture
is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region on Honshū island. The capital is Kobe.The prefecture's name was previously alternately spelled as Hiogo.- History :...
there is Kakinomoto Jinja, a shrine devoted to Hitomaro. The shrine holds an annual utakai (waka
Waka (poetry)
Waka or Yamato uta is a genre of classical Japanese verse and one of the major genres of Japanese literature...
party) devoted to him.
External links
- http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/hitomaro.shtml The 2001 Waka for Japan 2001 collection contains a large selection of translations of Hitomaro's poetry, mostly from the Man'yōshū
- Kenneth RexrothKenneth RexrothKenneth Rexroth was an American poet, translator and critical essayist. He is regarded as a central figure in the San Francisco Renaissance, and paved the groundwork for the movement...
's One Hundred Poems from the Japanese (New Directions, 1955, ISBN 0-8112-0181-3) contains several of Hitomaro's waka, as well as notable translations of 3 naga uta ("In the sea of ivy clothed Iwami", "The Bay of Tsyunu", and "When she was still alive") - http://visit-masuda.main.jp/hitomaro.html Takatsu Kakinomoto Shrine.