Khalaf I
Encyclopedia
Abu Ahmad Khalaf was the Saffarid amir of Sistan
from 963
until 1002. Although he was renowned in the eastern Islamic world as a scholar, his reign was characterized by violence and instability, and Saffarid rule over Sistan came to an end with his deposition.
to Abu Jafar Ahmad
and Banu, a granddaughter of Amr bin Laith
. Little is known about the first twenty-six years of his life; presumably much of it was spent learning. From 957
or 958
at the latest he was recognized as heir to the throne and his name was included on his father's coins.
Abu Ja'far Ahmad was murdered in Zarang. At the time of the assassination, Khalaf had been outside the capital. When he heard about his father's death, he rode for the town of Bust, whose governor immediately pledged his support. Soon afterward he led an army against Zarang, which was under the control of a rival Saffarid named Abu Hafs b. Muhammad. Seeing Khalaf's army, Abu Hafs fled the capital and sought refuge in Samanid
Khurasan
, allowing Khalaf to enter Zarang.
Shortly after Khalaf was proclaimed amir, he proclaimed Abu'l-Husayn Tahir his co-ruler. Abu'l-Husayn Tahir, who was descended from the Saffarids on his mother's side, had been governing Farah but came to Zarang after Abu Ja'far Ahmad was murdered. Khalaf set him up in the Yaqubi palace and had his name inserted in the khutba
beside his.
A year after Khalaf's ascension, a riot broke out in Zarang. Led by an 'ayyar leader and involving the city factions, it was quickly put down. Khalaf then decided to perform the Pilgrimage
and left, leaving Abu'l-Husayn Tahir in charge.
Khalaf spent probably one year on the Pilgrimage before returning (965
). On the way home he stopped at Baghdad
, where the Buyid amir Mu'izz al-Daula
gave him an audience with the Abbasid
caliph al-Muti
. The caliph confirmed him in his rule of Sistan and gave him a robe of honor and standard. Khalaf felt, however, that Abu'l-Husayn Tahir would not willingly give up control of Sistan upon his return, so he went to the Samanids for assistance and received an army. Returning to Sistan, he forced Abu'l-Husayn Tahir to retreat. As soon as Khalaf's army had been dismissed, however, Abu'l-Husayn Tahir returned, forcing Khalaf to seek Samanid help again. The conflict suddenly ended with the death of Abu'l Husayn Tahir in 970
; his son Husayn declared his alliegence to the Samanids and left Sistan for the time being.
. When Khalaf and his forces advanced to retake the capital, Husayn left the city and led his army against him. In the ensuing battle, Khalaf was victorious and several of Husayn's military commanders were killed. Khalaf retook Zarang in April of 971 and immediately began to root out Husayn's supporters in the city, causing many of them to flee to Khurasan.
Khalaf's victory proved to be only temporary, as Husayn returned in the following year. With an army that included elephants, Husayn defeated Khalaf in battle and reoccupied Zarang. A further setback for Khalaf occurred when the Samanids decided to get involved in the conflict. Khalaf had neglected to send the customary tribute to the Samanid amir at Bukhara
, and Husayn took advantage of the amir's interest in the conflict by leaving Zarang and travelling to Bukhara to seek assistance (Khalaf, for his part, seems to have been more friendly to the Buyids, even including the name of the Buyid amir 'Adud al-Daula
in the khutba at one point, perhaps in an attempt to receive military aid. No record of Buyid intervention in Sistan during this time appears, however). A Samanid army was sent to support Husayn; Khalaf gave battle but was defeated in August of 979
.
Husayn and his Samanid allies then surrounded Zarang, which Khalaf had fled to after the battle. A siege lasting for probably three years began. Khalaf's forces attempted numerous sorties but where unable to break the siege; the Samanid and Saffarid armies battled each other several times, with neither gaining a decisive victory. The Samanid amir eventually sent a member of the Simjurid family, Abu'l-Hasan Muhammad Simjuri, to break the stalemate. With his help, a truce was achieved between Husayn and Khalaf in 983
. Husayn received Zarang and much of Sistan; he entered the capital and had the name of the Samanid amir inserted in the khutba there. Khalaf left Zarang and took up residence in the nearby fortress of Taq and was to receive the revenues of the state lands and part of the revenues from Zarang.
As soon as Abu'l-Hasan left Sistan, however, Khalaf broke the truce and attempted to retake Sistan. Husayn barricaded himself in the citadel, but found that its supplies had been depleted by Khalaf's forces during the three-year siege. Realizing that he couldn't hold out for long, he contacted the Ghaznavids for help. The Ghaznavid Sebuktigin
made his way to Sistan, but Khalaf managed to bribe him and eventually convince him to assist him instead. With no choice left but to surrender, Husayn sent envoys to seek peace. An agreement was reached on December 25, 983, and to celebrate the peace numerous festivities were held. Husayn died not long after.
by the Buyid Baha' al-Daula
, he recognized the new caliph al-Qadir
. This represents a break between him and the Samanids, who with their vassals the Ghaznavids continued to recognize al-Tai as caliph. In any case, it was probably al-Qadir who gave Khalif his laqab of Wali 'l-Daula.
Khalaf also conducted a campaign to retake Bust and Zamindawar
. These had been virtually lost to the Saffarids during Abu'l-Husayn Tahir's rule; the local Turks
were more or less independent before the Ghaznavid Sebuktigin had conquered the region in c. 978
. Khalaf occupied Bust in 986
while Sebuktigin was preoccupied with his own campaign against the Hindushah
. When the Ghaznavid returned, however, Khalaf was forced to surrender Bust and return the taxes he had taken from the town.
Khalaf had several sons; the two oldest, Abu Nasr and Abu'l-Fadl, died of natural causes. The third, 'Amr, spent many years at the court of the Samanid amir in Bukhara. In 988
'Amr was sent back to Sistan, where his father warmly welcomed him. A few years later, however, 'Amr took part in a rebellion against Khalaf. The rebellion was soon put down and 'Amr was jailed; he died in prison shortly after.
After the attempt to take Bust, Khalaf and Sebuktigin seem to have been on good terms. Khalaf is reported to have participated in a campaign together with Sebuktigin and the Farighunid
amir of Guzgan
to assist the Samanids in quelling a rebellion in Khurasan. When Sebuktigin died in 997
, however, his two sons Mahmud and Ismail
disputed over who should succeed him. Khalaf viewed this as an opportunity to gain territory from the Ghaznavids, and sent his fourth son Tahir to take Quhistan
and Badghis in 998
. Tahir was defeated in Baghdis by Mahmud's uncle Bughrachuq, although the latter was killed in the fighting.
Mahmud had no intention of letting this assault go unpunished. He led his troops into Sistan in 1000 and trapped a surprised Khalaf, who was staying at a hill resort. Khalaf, lacking an army, had to pay an indemnity, put Mahmud's name before his own on his coins and place the Ghaznavid's name in the khutba.
Khalaf's son Tahir is mentioned as having invaded Buyid Kerman
in 1000, although he was ultimately unsuccessful in making any lasting gains. Soon afterwards he, like 'Amr before him, rebelled against Khalaf. The rebellion ended with Tahir's capture; he was imprisoned and died not long after, in 1002. With Tahir's death Khalaf was no longer left with any suitable heirs.
Khalaf's reign had grown increasingly unpopular over the years; his unpopularity especially grew after Tahir's rebellion. After Tahir died, the commander of his army sent a message to Mahmud of Ghazna, stating that the people of Zarang wanted him to become the ruler of Sistan. Mahmud responded by sending an advance force to secure Sistan. Khalaf resisted, barricaded himself in Taq and withstood a siege by the Ghaznavid force, so Mahmud decided to come personally in November 1002. Mahmud's army was reinforced by the townspeople of Zarang, eager to see the Saffarid defeated. By December of 1002 Khalaf was forced to surrender. He was sent to Farighunid Guzgan, wher he lived until 1006 or 1007. Rumors that Khalaf was in contact with the Karakhanids, whom Mahmud was at war with at the time, resulted in him being transferred south to Gardiz, where he died in 1009. Sistan remained under Ghaznavid rule until 1029, when the Nasrid dyansty gained control of the country.
Sistan
Sīstān is a border region in eastern Iran , southwestern Afghanistan and northern tip of Southwestern Pakistan .-Etymology:...
from 963
963
Year 963 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Turkish Khan Sebük Tigin establishes his empire in modern day Afghanistan....
until 1002. Although he was renowned in the eastern Islamic world as a scholar, his reign was characterized by violence and instability, and Saffarid rule over Sistan came to an end with his deposition.
Early life
Khalaf was born in the middle of November 937937
Year 937 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Battle of Brunanburh: King Athelstan of England defeats the Viking king of Dublin, the Scots, and Strathclyde....
to Abu Jafar Ahmad
Ahmad I bin Mohammed
Abu Ja'far Ahmad b. Muhammad was the amir of Sistan from 923 until his death. He is responsible for restoring Saffarid rule over Sistan, and was a great patron of the arts.-Ancestors:Abu Ja’far Ahmad’s father was named Muhammad...
and Banu, a granddaughter of Amr bin Laith
Amr bin Laith
Amr-i Laith Saffari was the second ruler of the Saffarid dynasty of Iran who ruled .In the beginning he was a mule-hirer. He was Yaqub bin Laith as-Saffar's younger brother who fought alongside his older brother and in 875 became Governor of Herat....
. Little is known about the first twenty-six years of his life; presumably much of it was spent learning. From 957
957
Year 957 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* The Chandra Hindu Dynasty ends, thus beginning a time of chaos in areas belonging to modern-day India....
or 958
958
Year 958 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.-Africa:* The Fatimid general Gawhar al-Siqilli takes the capital of the rebellious Kharijite Banu Ya'la tribesmen, Ifgan. Gawhar in the following two years conquers most of the North of modern Morocco and Algeria...
at the latest he was recognized as heir to the throne and his name was included on his father's coins.
Succession to the Amirate
At the end of March 963963
Year 963 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Turkish Khan Sebük Tigin establishes his empire in modern day Afghanistan....
Abu Ja'far Ahmad was murdered in Zarang. At the time of the assassination, Khalaf had been outside the capital. When he heard about his father's death, he rode for the town of Bust, whose governor immediately pledged his support. Soon afterward he led an army against Zarang, which was under the control of a rival Saffarid named Abu Hafs b. Muhammad. Seeing Khalaf's army, Abu Hafs fled the capital and sought refuge in Samanid
Samanid
The Samani dynasty , also known as the Samanid Empire, or simply Samanids was a Persian state and empire in Central Asia and Greater Iran, named after its founder Saman Khuda, who converted to Sunni Islam despite being from Zoroastrian theocratic nobility...
Khurasan
Greater Khorasan
Greater Khorasan or Ancient Khorasan is a historical region of Greater Iran mentioned in sources from Sassanid and Islamic eras which "frequently" had a denotation wider than current three provinces of Khorasan in Iran...
, allowing Khalaf to enter Zarang.
Shortly after Khalaf was proclaimed amir, he proclaimed Abu'l-Husayn Tahir his co-ruler. Abu'l-Husayn Tahir, who was descended from the Saffarids on his mother's side, had been governing Farah but came to Zarang after Abu Ja'far Ahmad was murdered. Khalaf set him up in the Yaqubi palace and had his name inserted in the khutba
Khutba
Khutbah serves as the primary formal occasion for public preaching in the Islamic tradition.Such sermons occur regularly, as prescribed by the teachings of all legal schools. The Islamic tradition can be formally at the dhuhr congregation prayer on Friday...
beside his.
A year after Khalaf's ascension, a riot broke out in Zarang. Led by an 'ayyar leader and involving the city factions, it was quickly put down. Khalaf then decided to perform the Pilgrimage
Hajj
The Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is one of the largest pilgrimages in the world, and is the fifth pillar of Islam, a religious duty that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so...
and left, leaving Abu'l-Husayn Tahir in charge.
Khalaf spent probably one year on the Pilgrimage before returning (965
965
Year 965 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* The Khazar fortress of Sarkel falls to the Kievan Rus....
). On the way home he stopped at Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
, where the Buyid amir Mu'izz al-Daula
Mu'izz al-Daula
Ahmad was the first of the Buwayhid emirs of Iraq, ruling from 945 until his death. He was the son of Buya.During the Buwayhid conquest of Fars, Ahmad distinguished himself in battle. In 935 or 936, Ahmad's oldest brother 'Ali sent Ahmad to Kerman with the task of conquering that province from the...
gave him an audience with the Abbasid
Abbasid
The Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the Abbasids , was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region....
caliph al-Muti
Al-Muti
Al-Muti was the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 946 to 974. He had long aspired to the office. Between him and the previous Caliph, al-Mustakfi, bitter enmity existed, which led him to retire into hiding....
. The caliph confirmed him in his rule of Sistan and gave him a robe of honor and standard. Khalaf felt, however, that Abu'l-Husayn Tahir would not willingly give up control of Sistan upon his return, so he went to the Samanids for assistance and received an army. Returning to Sistan, he forced Abu'l-Husayn Tahir to retreat. As soon as Khalaf's army had been dismissed, however, Abu'l-Husayn Tahir returned, forcing Khalaf to seek Samanid help again. The conflict suddenly ended with the death of Abu'l Husayn Tahir in 970
970
Year 970 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* A devastating decade-long famine begins in France....
; his son Husayn declared his alliegence to the Samanids and left Sistan for the time being.
Conflict with Husayn b. Abu'l-Husayn Tahir
Within a year of the death of Abu'l-Husayn Tahir, his son Husayn pressed his claim to the amirate. Returning to Sistan, he soon gained control of Zarang in late 970/early 971971
Year 971 was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Kenneth II of Scotland succeeds Culen as King, though he will not be sole king until 977....
. When Khalaf and his forces advanced to retake the capital, Husayn left the city and led his army against him. In the ensuing battle, Khalaf was victorious and several of Husayn's military commanders were killed. Khalaf retook Zarang in April of 971 and immediately began to root out Husayn's supporters in the city, causing many of them to flee to Khurasan.
Khalaf's victory proved to be only temporary, as Husayn returned in the following year. With an army that included elephants, Husayn defeated Khalaf in battle and reoccupied Zarang. A further setback for Khalaf occurred when the Samanids decided to get involved in the conflict. Khalaf had neglected to send the customary tribute to the Samanid amir at Bukhara
Bukhara
Bukhara , from the Soghdian βuxārak , is the capital of the Bukhara Province of Uzbekistan. The nation's fifth-largest city, it has a population of 263,400 . The region around Bukhara has been inhabited for at least five millennia, and the city has existed for half that time...
, and Husayn took advantage of the amir's interest in the conflict by leaving Zarang and travelling to Bukhara to seek assistance (Khalaf, for his part, seems to have been more friendly to the Buyids, even including the name of the Buyid amir 'Adud al-Daula
'Adud al-Daula
Aḍud al-Dawla or Azod od-Dowleh Panah Khusraw was an emir of the Buyid dynasty in Iran and Iraq...
in the khutba at one point, perhaps in an attempt to receive military aid. No record of Buyid intervention in Sistan during this time appears, however). A Samanid army was sent to support Husayn; Khalaf gave battle but was defeated in August of 979
979
Year 979 was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* The Tynwald of the Isle of Man is founded....
.
Husayn and his Samanid allies then surrounded Zarang, which Khalaf had fled to after the battle. A siege lasting for probably three years began. Khalaf's forces attempted numerous sorties but where unable to break the siege; the Samanid and Saffarid armies battled each other several times, with neither gaining a decisive victory. The Samanid amir eventually sent a member of the Simjurid family, Abu'l-Hasan Muhammad Simjuri, to break the stalemate. With his help, a truce was achieved between Husayn and Khalaf in 983
983
Year 983 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar.- Asia :* Wood carvers commissioned by China's Song Dynasty complete a carving of the entire Buddhist canon for printing .* The reign of Amir Adhad ad-Dowleh of Buwayhid ends.* Sharaf ad-Dawla becomes Amir Buwayhid.* The...
. Husayn received Zarang and much of Sistan; he entered the capital and had the name of the Samanid amir inserted in the khutba there. Khalaf left Zarang and took up residence in the nearby fortress of Taq and was to receive the revenues of the state lands and part of the revenues from Zarang.
As soon as Abu'l-Hasan left Sistan, however, Khalaf broke the truce and attempted to retake Sistan. Husayn barricaded himself in the citadel, but found that its supplies had been depleted by Khalaf's forces during the three-year siege. Realizing that he couldn't hold out for long, he contacted the Ghaznavids for help. The Ghaznavid Sebuktigin
Sebük Tigin
Abu Mansur Sabuktigin , also spelled as Sabuktagin, Sabuktakin, Sebüktegin and Sebük Tigin, is generally regarded by historians as the founder of the Ghaznavid Empire...
made his way to Sistan, but Khalaf managed to bribe him and eventually convince him to assist him instead. With no choice left but to surrender, Husayn sent envoys to seek peace. An agreement was reached on December 25, 983, and to celebrate the peace numerous festivities were held. Husayn died not long after.
Later years
Khalaf was now the sole uncontested amir of Sistan for the first time in twenty years. During the next several years he gained his reputation for being a great scholar and for encouraging learning within his realm. He is also said to have made another Pilgrimage, though the date of this is uncertain. Upon the deposition of the caliph al-Ta'i in 991991
Year 991 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Battle of Maldon: The Anglo-Saxons are defeated by Viking invaders led by Olaf Tryggvason, later Olaf I of Norway....
by the Buyid Baha' al-Daula
Baha' al-Daula
Baha' al-Daula was the Buyid amir of Iraq , along with Fars and Kerman . He was the third son of 'Adud al-Daula....
, he recognized the new caliph al-Qadir
Al-Qadir
Al-Qadir was the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad from 991 to 1031. Grandson of al-Muqtadir, he was chosen in place of the deposed Caliph, at-Taʾi, his cousin. Banished from the Capital earlier, he was now recalled and appointed to the office he had long desired. He held the Caliphate for 40 years...
. This represents a break between him and the Samanids, who with their vassals the Ghaznavids continued to recognize al-Tai as caliph. In any case, it was probably al-Qadir who gave Khalif his laqab of Wali 'l-Daula.
Khalaf also conducted a campaign to retake Bust and Zamindawar
Zamindawar
Zamindawar is a historical district of Afghanistan, situated on the right bank of the Helmand River to the northwest of Kandahar bordering the road which leads from Kandahar to Herat via Farah....
. These had been virtually lost to the Saffarids during Abu'l-Husayn Tahir's rule; the local Turks
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are peoples residing in northern, central and western Asia, southern Siberia and northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds...
were more or less independent before the Ghaznavid Sebuktigin had conquered the region in c. 978
978
Year 978 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Badìa Fiorentina, an abbey in Florence, Italy, is founded by Willa, Margravine of Tuscany....
. Khalaf occupied Bust in 986
986
Year 986 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* March 2 – Louis V becomes King of the Franks....
while Sebuktigin was preoccupied with his own campaign against the Hindushah
Shahi
The Shahi , Sahi, also called Shahiya dynasties ruled one of the Middle kingdoms of India which included portions of the Kabulistan and the old province of Gandhara , from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century to the early 9th century...
. When the Ghaznavid returned, however, Khalaf was forced to surrender Bust and return the taxes he had taken from the town.
Khalaf had several sons; the two oldest, Abu Nasr and Abu'l-Fadl, died of natural causes. The third, 'Amr, spent many years at the court of the Samanid amir in Bukhara. In 988
988
Year 988 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* The offensive of al-Mansur against the Christian kingdoms continues. He attacks the heart of the kingdom of León...
'Amr was sent back to Sistan, where his father warmly welcomed him. A few years later, however, 'Amr took part in a rebellion against Khalaf. The rebellion was soon put down and 'Amr was jailed; he died in prison shortly after.
After the attempt to take Bust, Khalaf and Sebuktigin seem to have been on good terms. Khalaf is reported to have participated in a campaign together with Sebuktigin and the Farighunid
Farighunid
The Farighunids were an Iranian dynasty of Guzgan in the late 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries.-Political and Military History:...
amir of Guzgan
Guzgan
Guzgan was the medieval term for a principality roughly centered on modern Gurziwan, Faryab Province, Afghanistan. Historically, Guzgan extended beyond the boundaries of modern Faryab and Jowzjan Province, as far as Sar-e Pol Province...
to assist the Samanids in quelling a rebellion in Khurasan. When Sebuktigin died in 997
997
Year 997 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* First documented reference to the City of Gdańsk....
, however, his two sons Mahmud and Ismail
Ismail of Ghazni
Ismail of Ghazni was the second ruler and Amir of the Ghaznavid Empire. He succeeded his father Amir Sabuktigin, who died of an illness acquired in Balkh during a campaign in the Samanid civil war...
disputed over who should succeed him. Khalaf viewed this as an opportunity to gain territory from the Ghaznavids, and sent his fourth son Tahir to take Quhistan
Quhistan
Quhistan or Kohistan was a region of medieval Persia, essentially the southern part of Greater Khorasan. Its boundaries appear to have been indeterminate, and the term generally seems to have been applied loosely....
and Badghis in 998
998
Year 998 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar.- Europe :* Otto III retakes the city of Rome and reinstates his cousin, Pope Gregory V, after mutilating and blinding his rival, Antipope John XVI.* St...
. Tahir was defeated in Baghdis by Mahmud's uncle Bughrachuq, although the latter was killed in the fighting.
Mahmud had no intention of letting this assault go unpunished. He led his troops into Sistan in 1000 and trapped a surprised Khalaf, who was staying at a hill resort. Khalaf, lacking an army, had to pay an indemnity, put Mahmud's name before his own on his coins and place the Ghaznavid's name in the khutba.
Khalaf's son Tahir is mentioned as having invaded Buyid Kerman
Kerman
- Geological characteristics :For the Iranian paleontologists, Kerman has always been considered a fossil paradise. Finding new dinosaur footprints in 2005 has now revealed new hopes for paleontologists to better understand the history of this area.- Economy :...
in 1000, although he was ultimately unsuccessful in making any lasting gains. Soon afterwards he, like 'Amr before him, rebelled against Khalaf. The rebellion ended with Tahir's capture; he was imprisoned and died not long after, in 1002. With Tahir's death Khalaf was no longer left with any suitable heirs.
Khalaf's reign had grown increasingly unpopular over the years; his unpopularity especially grew after Tahir's rebellion. After Tahir died, the commander of his army sent a message to Mahmud of Ghazna, stating that the people of Zarang wanted him to become the ruler of Sistan. Mahmud responded by sending an advance force to secure Sistan. Khalaf resisted, barricaded himself in Taq and withstood a siege by the Ghaznavid force, so Mahmud decided to come personally in November 1002. Mahmud's army was reinforced by the townspeople of Zarang, eager to see the Saffarid defeated. By December of 1002 Khalaf was forced to surrender. He was sent to Farighunid Guzgan, wher he lived until 1006 or 1007. Rumors that Khalaf was in contact with the Karakhanids, whom Mahmud was at war with at the time, resulted in him being transferred south to Gardiz, where he died in 1009. Sistan remained under Ghaznavid rule until 1029, when the Nasrid dyansty gained control of the country.