Kulasekhara dynasty (Second Cheras)
Encyclopedia
Kulasekhara or Later Chera dynasty was a classical
Hindu
dynasty founded by the saint King Kulashekhara Varman. The dynasty ruled the whole of modern Kerala
state (Malabar or Kudamalainadu), Guddalore and some parts of Nilgiri district and Salem - Coimbatore region in southern India between 9th and 12th centuries AD mostly from the outskirts of the sea port Muziris
, called Mahodayapuram, on the banks of River Periyar
. The Kulasekharas traces their ancestry back to the powerful Chera dynasty
of the Tamil
Sangam
Age. The age of Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram is known in history as the Golden Age of Kerala.
After the disappearance of the Kalabhras
rule in south India the Chera dynasty was revived around 9th century as Kulasekharas from Kodungallur
(Mahodayapuram or Thiruvanchikulam
) rather than from their former capital in Kongunad, Vanchikarur
. The kings took the title of Perumal during this period and patronised Vaishnavite or Shavaite sects. The Kulasekharas were from the Villavar
martial clan and the Chera king had the title Villavar Kon indicating Villavar clans founded theancient Chera Kingdom and supported by Paluvettaraiyar
, Vanavar and Malayar and other ethnic Tamil clans. The Later Cheras had a second interior capital at Udagai in the Kongunad. They shared the present day Kerala state with the Mushikas
in the north and the Ay
s in the south and other Chieftains ruling small regions of rest of the region. The kingdom was in continues wars with the neighboring Chola dynasty
and the Rashtrakuta Empire leading the way for enormous increase in the power of Namboothiri Brahmins in the socio-economic life. And as a result of continuous wars with the Cholas, the education institutes and temples were progressively neglected. Centres of education were converted to Kalaries for imparting military training by Kalari experts. Suicide squads were set up to meet the challenge. Rama Varma Kulashekhara (r. 1090–1102), the last of the Kulasekharas and the first Kulasekhara Venad ruler moved his capital to a provincial capital Kollam when Later Chola king Kulothunga Chola I
sacked Mahodyapuram. The death of Rama Varma Kulashekhara signalled the end of the Mahodayapuram Cheras and from the ruins of which arose the Kulasekhara state of Venad
and hence the kingdom of Travancore.
In spite of these political disturbances, there was intense religious activity in Kerala during the Kulasekhara ages. While Jainism
and Buddhism declined, Hinduism]] made phenomenal progress. Already Christianity and Judaism had struck deep roots in Kerala. It is possible that Islam
also made its advent into Kerala in the 7th century AD. The development of Malayalam language
and a unique identity of Malayali
emerged during this period.
The court astronomer of Sthanu Ravi Varman (ruled 844-85), Sankaranarayana
, through his work Sankaranarayaniyam has contributed necessary evidence to establish the chronology of Sthanu Ravi Varman. Yamaka Kavyas of Vasudeva Bhattatiri is of great historical value. The devotional songs of the Saiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alwars cannot be neglected. Works like the Muthollayiram (C. 800 CE), Perumal Thirumozhi of Kulasekhara Varman and Periyapuranam of Sekkilar (12th century CE) contain vivid historical accounts of the Kulasekhara kings. Takkayagapparani of Ottakuthan (12th century CE) points to the transfer of Chera capital from Karur to Mahodayapuram. The poet Tholan
is also believed to have lived in the 9th century AD.
The work of historian M.G.S. Narayanan is often regarded as the primary material in Later Chera studies.
The rule of the Kulasekharas is a period in Kerala history which underwent re-interpretation as a result of epigraphic evidence. Traditionally, it was believed that the Perumals (kings) who ruled Kerala were invited from outside Kerala by the Brahmin community to rule over the country for a limited period of 12 years after which the Perumal was to abdicate and retire from public life. The story is related to the founding myth of Kerala by Hindu god Parasurama and the settlement of 64 Brahmin villages. Keralolpathi gave credence to this story which was repeated by orthodox historians. Even historians like K.A. Nilakanta Sastri accepted the story of the imported Perumals and suggested that Kulasekhara Alwar, the first Later Chera ruler, was one such foreign ruler invited to rule over Kerala.
Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai analysed epigraphic and other documentary evidence to establish that a Chera dynasty, different from the Sangham era Chera kingdom, existed in the ninth century with their capital at Mahodayapuram (Makothai). He named this dynasty the Kulashekharas of Mahodayapuram. Narayanan furthered and refined this work.
between the two dynasties. Mostly, they were the allies of the powerful Pallavas, against the Pandyas and Ay
s.
The Kalabhras were defeated around the 6th century with the revival of Pallava and Pandya power. A Pandya ruler, Maravarman Rajasimha I
(c. 730 – 765 AD), mentioned in a number of Pandya copper-plate inscriptions
, was a prominent ruler during the early 8th century CE. He claims to have defeated a prominent Chera king. The name of the Chera king is not known, however from the details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory ceded seems to have included the entire Kerala and the Southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli, with capital at Karur
.
The copper plates of the Pallava
dynasty kings of the period give us a glimpse about their field of action. In the reign of Pandya king Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (765-790 CE), the Cheras was still in the Karur
region as a close ally of the Pallava dynasty. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan defeated the local king Atiya of the Ay kingdom, at first, at Ayiraveli Aiyilur, and pursued him to Pugalur
and vanquished him. The Pallava and Chera came to help the Atiya, but were also defeated. That this war between Cheras and Pallava on the one hand and the Pandya on the other, took place at Karur is indicated by Dalavaypuram plates which specifically say Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan defeated the Kadava (Pallava) at Karur. But the Vaishnava saint Thirunmangai Alvar, states that the Pallava won a victory over the Pandya at Karur. This would indicate that the Karur battle was indecisive.
During this period, the port Vizhinjam (former capital of the Ay kingdom), seems to have slipped out of the hand of the Cheras and was controlled by the Ay kingdom. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan states in his Srivaramangalam plates, that he defeated the Ay king at Vizhinjam. But, within a short period, the Cheras regained the Vizhinjam area. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan's son, Sri Mara Srivallabha, claims to have killed the Chera in a battle at Vizhinjam. But, again around 850 to 900 CE the Vizhinjam region was under the control of the Ay kings Karunan Tadakkan and Aviyalantadakkan.
region. It was probably during this period Udagai became the second capital of the Kulasekara dynasty with a member of the Kulasekara family appointed to rule over this region.
Kulashekhara Varman was also called himself as Kongarkon ("the king of the Kongu people") hailing from Kollinagar (Karur
). Though the Kongars were defeated by the first Chera king Cheran Senguttuvan in the 2nd century CE, from 5th century CE the Kongu region had been occupied by Western Ganga Dynasty. The title Kongarkon indicates Kulashekhara Varman had regained control of Kongu (Salem-Coimbatore region) from the Western Ganga Dynasty in his reign. Other titles of Kulashekhara Varman mentioned in the Perumal thirumozhi are Malayarkon, Kollikkavalan (Kolli is a mountain in Namakkal districtt., Tamil Nadu), Koikkon (the ruler of Kozhi or Uraiyur near Trichy, the Chola capital) and Koodal Nayagan (master of Kudal or Madurai
, the Pandya capital).
Adi Shankara
, the Hindu philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta
, was his contemporary. Kulasekhara Varman is said to have married the Pandya Kings' daughter. He made pilgrimages to Thiruvarangam (Sri Rangam) in Chola kingdom, and Thiruvenkatam (Thiruppathi) in Thondainadu. It is believed that he renounced the crown to become a Hindu saint and lived in Srirangam, an important Vaishnavaite center, to serve the deity of Ranganatha. He died in Mannar Kovil in 820 AD.
Kulashekhara Varman was also one of the celebrated Tamil Bhakti
cult poet saints (alvar
s) and his poems are called Perumal thirumozhi. Works such as the Tamil language Perumal Tirumozhi and Sanskrit dramas like Mukundamala, Tapatisamvarna, Subhadradhanjaya and Vichchinnabhiseka and a prose work Aschrya Manjari in the same language have been attributed to him.
It was during time of Kulasekhara Varman, the traditions of Koothambalams in Hindu Temples and the Devadasi system began. Temple sculpture making and drawing proceeded long in this period. Salais or schools associated with temples were very famous (Kanthalur Salai, Parthivapuram Salai, Thiruvalla Salai, Moozhikkulam Salai etc.). They were residential in nature, with students living in proximity to the teacher.
Rajashekhara Varman (usually identified with Cheraman Perumal Nayanar) was the second in line of the Mahodayapuram Cheras. But, recently some historians regard him as the first Mahodayapuram Chera ruler. Unlike his Vaishnavite father, Rajashekhara Varman was an ardent devotee of God Siva and was a Saivaite-Nayanar regal saint. It was during his reign (820-44 AD) the Kollavarsham began. Rajashekhara Varman was born and ruled in Mahodayapuram (Thiruvanchikkulam). But, he is also said to have ruled from the original seat of Cheras, Karuvur Vanchi (modern Karur). His kingdom included ruled the Koduntamizh regions of Kuttanadu, Venadu and Tenpandinadu, the first two north and south modern Kerala and the third, the southern tail end districts of Tamil Nadu.
Rajashekhara Varman spent most of his time in religious activities and in meditation at the Siva Temple in Thiruvanchikkulam. It was during this time that a Saivaite saint. Sundaramoorthy Nayanar
. made a pilgrimage to the Thiruvarur Temple in the neighbouring Chola kingdom. Rajashekhara Varman with desire to meet this Tamil Saiva Saint, also went to Thiruvarur at this same time. He wrote Siva praising Tamil hyms called Mummanikkovai during this period in Thiruvarur. After meeting with Sundaramoorthy Nayanar, Rajashekhara Varman went with him to the Siva temple at Vedaranniyam in the Chola kingdom and other Siva temples all over the Pandya kingdom. He composed further hyms in Tamil in praise of God Siva known as "Ponnvanna Anthathi" and "Thirukkalyana Gnana Ulla". All the above hyms composed by him have been included in the eleventh "Thirumurai" (Thirumurais are a collection of the sacred hyms in Tamil, sung on God Siva by various Tamil Saiva Saints of Tamil Nadu and few from the Kerala State). Finally at the request of Rajashekhara Varman, Sundaramoorthy Nayanar opted to visit the palace of this Cheras at his capital city of Mahodayapuram, travelling through Kongunadu. Kongumandala Satakam says that Rajashekhara Varman went to Kayilai with his friend and Saivaite saint called Sundaramoorthy Nayanar. Both Rajashekhara Varman and Sundaramoorthy Nayanar died in Thiruvanchikkulam in 844 AD. Some historians say that he died unable to bear the grief of the death of this great saint.
Rajashekhara Varman is also reputed to have issued the Vazhapalli plates. However, the recently discovered Kurumathur Inscription (from Areekkode in Malappuram District) by Rajashekhara Varman dates 871 CE, proving to be the earliest documented evidence of the Chera rule out-dating the Vazhapalli plates.
Rajasekhara Varman was followed by his son, Sthanu Ravi Varman (844-85), a contemporary of the Chola king, Vijayalaya Chola
. Sthanu Ravi Varman (sometimes called Ravi Varman Tribuvanachakravarti Kulasekaradeva or (Ko)kandan Ravi) was too a Shaivaite like his father. His queen was called Kilanadigal. Sthanu Ravi Varman and his daughter both being of Saivite faith, and with the prevailing good relations that existed with the Chola country, had made their endowments to the Siva temples in the Chola country.
With the rise of the Cholas in the middle of the 9th century, Aditya I
, (c. 871 – c. 907 CE) expanded the Chola kingdom by defeating the Pallavas. But, friendly relations appear to have existed between the Kulasekhara under Sthanu Ravi Varman and the Cholas in the reign of Aditya I. Sthanu Ravi Varman is stated in inscriptions to have received royal honours from Aditya I. During the same period, Sthanu Ravi Varman helped Aditya I to capture Kongunad from the Pandyas. A general named Vikkiannan (the chieftan of Kodumbalur) was greatly instrumental in winning this war, and was rewarded jointly by the Chola and Chera kings with a crown, palace, elephants, royal palanquin, drum and the given the title "Sembiyan Tamil Verl". The amicable relations which the Kulasekharas maintained with the Chola is borne out by the Tillaisthanam inscriptions.
Aditya I’s son, Parantaka I
had a queen by the name Villavan Mahadeviyar probably the daughter of the Venad ruler of the Chera country, who refer themselves as "Villavar'. By some historians this Venad king is often identified with Sthanu Ravi Varman. So, Parantaka I married a daughter of Sthanu Ravi Varman called Villavan Mahadeviyar. Sthanu Ravi Varman's other daughter by the name Kilanadigal married king Vijayaragadeva from another Chera royal family ruling a part of Kerala. After Aditya I, Parantaka Chola I had the Kulasekharas as his close ally and the relationship were further strengthened during this reign.
Parantaka I
also married Udaiya Pirattiyar Kokkilan Adigal, the daughter of Rama Varman Kulasekhara, son of Sthanu Ravi Varman. Parantaka I also married the daughter of another Chera king Paluvettaraiyar Kandan Amuthan named Arumoli Nangai ruling from west Paluvur of the present Tirutchirappalli in Tamil Nadu bordering Kerala. Sometimes, Kandan Amuthan is identified as Sthanu Ravi Varman himself. Such as in the Anbil Plates of Parantaka Chola II
refers Sthanu Ravi Varman as the prince of Kerala, Kandan Amudanar, a Paluvettaraiyar. In fact, Paluvettaraiyar were petty chiefs ruling present Kilapaluvur and Melapaluvur, in the Udaiyarpalayam taluk of the Tiruchirapalli district, during that period. Parantaka I
had an elder son by Kokkilan Adigal named Rajathithya, a second son by the name Gandarathitha and a younger son by Arulmoli Nangai named Arinjaya Chola (Sometimes Arinjaya Chola is identified as the son of Parantaka Chola I and Villavan Mahadeviyar).
However, during this age of Sthanu Ravi Varman, Chera-Pandya relations were also friendly. Pandya king Parantaha Vira Narayana (860-905 AD) married the Kulasekhara princess Vanavan Mathevi, and to them was born Maravarman Rajasimha II
(900-920 AD), another Pandya monarch. Ayyan Atikal Tiruvatikal, who issued the famous Tharisapalli plates
(Third Quilon copper plate, Tharissapalli Deed I or Kottayam plate) of 849 AD for the Later Chera king to Isodatta Virai for Tharissapalli (church) at Curakkeni Kollam, was the governor of Venad
under Sthanu Ravi Varman.
But, some historians say that it was given by king Sthanu Ravi Varman himself, to Isodatta Virai. This is the first deed in Kerala that gives the exact date.
In same year as of the Tharisapalli plates
, the villagers of the Chalukkipparu has gifted a village named Chathanur in the Thondainadu to the temple of Siva named as Tiruayanisuramudaiya Nayanar. The Kulasekhara Queen Kilanadigal provided gold for a lamp at the temple of Thiruvannamalai in Thondaimanadu (adjacent to Chola kingdom) in the
year 851 AD. Sthanu Ravi Varman also gifted land for lighting lamp at the temple at Kuttalam in Pandya kingdom in 870 AD. The observations of the Arab Merchant Sulaiman (851 AD) affirms the flourshing trade between Kerala and China during his region.
A native of Nandikkaraiputtur (Chera kingdom) Velankumaran was the general of the Chola prince Rajathithya, son of Parantaka and Kokkilan Adigal. But, he died very young in a war in Thondainadu.
, who composed the astronomical work Laghubhāskarīyavivaraṇa, attended Sthanu Ravi Varman's court. He is believed to have established the first astronomical observatory in India at the capital-Kodungallur
. The first extant reference to a place of observation with some instruments in India is in the treatise Laghubhāskarīyavivaraṇa authored by Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa. In this work, Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa speaks of a place with instruments in the capital city Mahodayapuram. The observatory was fitted with an armillary sphere which is a model of the celestial sphere
. At the directions of Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa, in every Kadigai duration of 34 minutes, bells were sounded at different important centres of the town to announce correct time.
The following is a translation of the verses in Laghubhāskarīyavivaraṇa containing references to the existence of an observatory in Mahodayapuram:
"(To the king): Oh Ravivarmadeva( Sthanu Ravi Varman), now deign to tell us quickly, reading off from the armillary sphere
installed (at the observatory
) in Mahodayapuram, duly fitted with all the relevant circles and with the sign (-degree
-minute
) markings, the time of the rising point of the ecliptic
(lagna) when the Sun
is at 10° in the Sign of Capricorn
, and also when the Sun
is at the end of the Sign Libra
, which I have noted."
Govindaswamin who wrote commentary on Mahabhaskariya of Bhaskara I
belonged to Kerala in Mahodayapuram.
The reign of the saint king Rama Varman Kulasekhara (885-917 CE) was noted only for the strengthening of the friendly ties with the Cholas through a marriage alliance. Rama Varman Kulasekhara helped Parantaka Chola in his successful campaigns against the Maravarman Rajasimha II
of the Pandyas. Maravarman Rajasimha II
escaped to Ceylon, and with the assistance of the king of Sri Lanka fought back with Parantaka Chola and his allies namely the Pallavas and the Chera king Rama Varma Kulasekhara at Thirupurambiyam. But he was defeated and again took refuge in Ceylon. The foreign traveller Al-Masudi
visited Kerala and left behind an account of the life of the people during Rama Varma Kulasekhara's reign.
His successor Kotha Ravi Varman (917-44 CE) is known as the author of innumerable inscriptions. These have greatly assisted the historians in solving the riddles relating to the chronology and limits of the Kulasekhara kingdom. His kingdom comprised practically the whole of Kerala. The relations with the Cholas deteriorated for the first in centuries during his period, because of two reasons. The annexation of the Ay kingdom by the Kulasekharas and the granting of political asylum to the Pandya ruler, Maravarman Rajasimha II
. Being a strategist, the Kotha Ravi Varman took effective steps to garrison the frontiers in order to keep enemies at bay. Maravarman Rajasimha II was the last Pandyan king of the first Pandyan empire. He had once plundered the Chera capital at Vanchi in Kongu Nadu. After the successive defeats at the hands of Parantaka Chola I, Rajasimha II fled to Ceylon but then unable to secure refuge, he went to Kerala, as he himself had descended in part from a chera king where he spent the rest of his days keeping a low profile.
King Indu Kotha Varman (944-62 CE) succeeded Kotha Ravi Varman. During his time the Chola-Kulasekhara relations remained nearly tense. It was however eased with the death of Parantaka I
in 955 CE .
However, Arinjaya Chola married the daughter of Indu Kotha Varman named Athithan Kothai Piratiyar.
grant of 1000 CE. His kingdom stretched from the present day Calicut to Tiruvanandapuram region encompassing the Kudamalainadu, Kongunadu and Venad. Bhaskara Ravi Varman II appears to have assisted Bhaskara Ravi Varman I in ruling his Chera Kingdom as his co-regent probably from Udagai in the Kongunad. It was during his reign the War of Hundred Years (c. 990 to 1105 CE) against the Cholas began. The authenticity of this event is strongly disputed among the scholars. One of the important findings of M.G.S. Narayanan was that there was no substance to support the theory of a hundred years of war between the Cheras and the Cholas. The Cholas had conquered the Chera kingdom but the latter continued to rule as feudatories of the mighty Chola kingdom for well over a hundred years.
However, the King faced total defeat by the hands of Chola king Raja Raja Chola I. Raja Raja Chola I invaded Kulasekhara kingdom in 994-995 AD and destroyed the navy of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I in the famous Kandalur War
.
But according to M. G. S., there was no substance to support the theory of a Hundred Years of War between the Cheras (Kulasekharas) and the Cholas.
The Cholas had conquered the Chera kingdom but the latter continued to rule as feudatories of the mighty Chola kingdom for well over a hundred years. It was only in the last decades of the 11 {+t} {+h} century, when the power of the Chola kingdom had weakened, that the Perumal of Mahodayapuram asserted his sovereignty.
Raja Raja Chola I wanted the disruption of the supply lines of trained warriors and armory from Kandalur Salai to the Ay kingdom (Ay kingdom was under the rule of Cheras and were the allies of the Pandyas). So, he waged war on the Kandalur Salai in 988 AD, and partly destroyed this military academy. But, soon the Cheras reinstated their positions again in Kandalur Salai and continued with the functions. This made Raja Raja Chola I to wage war again on Kandalur Salai in 994-995 AD, and effectively destroyed the navel academy.
One of Raja Raja Chola I's queens was Villavanmathevi, the daughter of the king of Venadu of Chera kingdom. He also had a queen known as Panchavanmathevi (who was the daughter of a Paluvettaraiyar called Kandan Maravan, the Chera king of Paluvur on the west of Thirutchirappalli, and was mother of Rajendra Chola I
)
Son of Arinjaya Chola, Parantaka Chola II
married Paranthahan Theviammanar, another daughter of Indu Kotha Varman. The Chola monarch Uththama Chola
had a queen called Panchavanmatheviyar, the daughter of the Chera king Paluvettaraiyar known as Kandan
Sundera Cholan.
After the Kandalur War
, in another the war against the Pandyas, Raja Raja Chola I seized the Pandya king Amarabhujanga and a Chola general also defeated the Ay king and captured their capital, Vizhinjam
. To commemorate these conquests Raja Raja Chola I assumed the title Mummudichola, ("the Chola king who wears three crowns - the Chera, Chola and Pandya"). After his capture of Aye kingdom, Raja Raja Chola I re-named a village called Muttam in Valluvanad (one of the provinces of the Ay kingdom, the other being Nanjinad) into Mummudicholanallur a subdivision of Rajarja Tennadu, or the Ay kingdom under Raja Raja Chola.
The Jewish Copper Plate
was conferred on a "Jewish Chief Joseph Rabban
, the rights of the Anjuvannam
and 72 other properietary rights." by Bhaskara Ravi Varman I.
No doubt the grant was a token of the high sense of religions toleration granted in the Kulasekhara kingdom. However, Jewish Copper Plate may also be deemed as a diplomatic move to win the Jew population over to the Kulasekhara side, in view of the implending Chola aggression under Raja Raja Chola I.
the temple of Tirunandiikkarai was to be bathed in the river and a perpetual lamp called Rajarajan to be lit every day.
In a battle against the Kulasekharas sometime before 1008 AD (sometimes considered as in 1014 AD), Raja Raja Chola I captured Udagai in the western hill country (Kongunad). Kalingattuparani, a war poem written during the reign of Kulothunga Chola I
hints at a slight on the Chola ambassador to the Kulasekhara court as the reason for this sacking of Udagai. The Chola king sent an ambassador to Bhaskara Ravi Varman II, the co-regent of the king Bhaskara Ravi Varman I in Udagai, requesting him to submit to Chola suzerainty and to pay tributes. But, the Chola ambassador was humiliated by Bhaskara Ravi Varman II and was put into prison at Udagai, which enraged the Chola king and he sent a large expedition to Udagai. The Chola army destroyed and the city was captured Kongunad from the Cheras. Raja Raja Chola I's son Rajendra Chola I
was the Chola general leading the army in this battle. A place named Udagai is mentioned in connection with the conquest of the Pandyas. The Kalingattuparani refers to the storming of Udagai in the verse, which alludes to the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. The Kulottungasoranula also mentions the burning of Udagai. Udagai may be an important stronghold in the Pandya country, which the Chola king captured. The Tamil poem Vikkiramacholanula mentions the conquest of Malainadu and the killing of 18 princes in retaliation of the insult offered to an envoy.
The Chola forces further marched to the present day Northern and Central Kerala (Kudamalainadu) and defeated Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, and captured Mahodayapuram. Now, Bhaskara Ravi Varman I accepted the Chola suzerainty and continued to rule from Mahodayapuram paying tributes. This brought all the territories of Chera country ruled by the other chieftans too to accept the Chola supremacy. Cholas moved further into the south of the Kulasekhara kingdom, Venad territory (Kolladesam) and captured Venad along with its capital Kollam, which were at this time ruled by a chieftain called Govardhana
Marthandan appointed by the Kulasekhara king. The Kulasekhara dynasty went into a temporary decline after this defeats, although the remnants of the Kulasekhara continued to cause trouble for their Chola overlords. By the end of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I's vassal reign the whole of south Travancore to the south of Kuzhithura came under the Chola domination. Raja also seized Pandya Amara Bhujanga and captured the port of Vizhinjam (and Kandalur Salai) over which there were repeated struggles between the Kulasekharas and the Cholas.
In 1019 AD, During the period of Rajendra Chola I
, Bhaskara Ravi Varman I made some agitations of freedom from the Cholas. Soon, Rajendra Chola I
a war expedition under the leadership of his second son Manukulakesari to Kudamalainadu. Manukulakesari killed the Kulasekhara king, captured Mahodayapuram and secured a diadem and an island called Santhimathivu belonging to Cheras in Arabic sea. This was the final route of the Kulasekharas. On the death of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, Bhaskara Ravi Varman II unofficially ascended the throne, but ruled only for a short while (1019-21 CE). With the end of the Chera civil war, Rajendra Chola I
assumed a new title as Mudikonda Cholan and gave the title "Cholakeralan" to his second son Manukulakesari and appointed him as the Chola viceroy to rule the captured Kudamalainadu.
However with the necessaity of Manukulakesari having to lead a war expedition with Eastern Chalukyas, he was recalled back from Chera country in the year 1021 AD, appointing the Chera prince Vira Cherala (1021-28 CE), son of Baskara Ravi Varman, to rule on accepting the Chola suzerainty. Rajendra Chola I
married Panchavanmathevi, daughter of the Chera king Paluvettariyar. But, within seven years, Vira Cherala, allied with the Venad rulers rebelled against the Cholas under Rajadhiraja Chola
. Soon, the Chola king sent forces to Mahodayapuram and defeated Vira Kerala and was put to death by his royal elephant Atthivaranam. The Chola aggressions continued and with the death of Vira Cherala in 1028 AD, the Kulasekhara power eclipsed. Rajadhiraja Chola
now appointed Raja Simha (1028-43 CE), the son of Vira Kerala, as a vassal and had friendly relations with the Cholas for some time. However with fluctuating fortunes, the Kulasekharas continued under Raja Simha (1028-43 CE). His reign is known for his Mannarkoil inscription, which acknowledged the supremacy of the Cholas. Madeviyar Adicchi was Vira Kerala's queen. In the meantime, Venad rulers continued their unsuccessful rebellions.
Govardhana Marthanda, the new ruler of Venad, started rebellions assisted by Ramakuta Muvar. Ramakuta Muvar was the ruler Koovaham in present day Kerala. Rajadhiraja Chola
easily defeated the rebels in Venad, and both Govardhana Marthanda and Ramakuta Muvar escaped to forest hideouts, and the Chola army the military academy and arms centre that became active again at Kanthalur Salai and attacked and defeated Vizhinjam which revived its efforts under Ay kings to become independent, and was renamed as Rajendracholapattanam. So, finally Venad ruler accepted the Chola domination, and continued as a vassal paying tributes.
However, by the time of Bhaskara Ravi Varman III (1043-1082 CE) Kerala was totally liberated from the Chola yoke. In 1063 AD, Virarajendra Chola
became the Chola ruler. Making the most of it, Cheras and Venad rulers started rebellions, so the new king sent an expedition to Venad and killed Jananathan, the younger brother of Venad ruler. Venad ruler himself fled from the kingdom. Later with the agitation also from Bhaskara Ravi Varman III necessiated Virarajendra Chola
to go on a renewed war expedition, with a large elephant cavalry, towards the important cities of the Cheras like Mahodayapuram and Udagai. Bhaskara Ravi Varman III in fear escaped with his family to safety. Virarajendra Chola
successfully returned back with much tributes, elephants and maids.
In 1070 AD, the first of the Later Cholas, Kulothunga Chola I
ascended to the thrown of an empire in crisis and civil war. Taking opportunity of the political turmoil in the Chola kingdom, the rulers of Ay kingdom, Venad and Mahodayapuram (Kudamalainadu, present day Malabar) rebelled against the capital. Within 11 years of his coronation, in 1081 AD, Kulothunga Chola I
waged war with the Cheras. He re-captured Kanthalur Salai, Vizhinjam, and the entire Ay kingdom to the Cape Comorin. Soon, Bhaskara Ravi Varman III agreed the domination. But, this time the Chola ruler stationed his forces (nilappada) at Kottar in south Kerala under Commander Arayan Madhuranthakan or Chola Keralarachan. Then the Chola forces moved further north to Mahodayapuram and faced with the Nair suicidal squads of Bhaskara Ravi Varman III. But, the superior Chola forces successfully defeated the Cheras, and killed Bhaskara Ravi Varman III in 1082 AD. Ravi Rama Varman (1082-90 CE) followed Bhaskara Ravi Varman III with his acceptance to pay tribute to Cholas.
had occupied Nanjanad and south Kerala and was proceeding towards Kollam, the capital of the Venad rulers (one of the Rama Varman Kulashekhara's former vassal) in 1090s and by 1095 CE, Kulothunga Chola had destroyed Kollam and towards the end of these wars the Cholas conquered as far as central Kerala.
The capital city of Mahodayapuram (present Kodungallur) and surrounding places were devastated, looted ad burned down in the long war and Rama Varman Kulashekhara, without even a palace of his own, is known to have stayed at alternative frugal accommodations.
As soon as the war with the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI
ended, Kulothunga Chola I
turned all his energy to the suppression of the revolts in the Pandya and the Kulasekhara territories. The record at the innermost prakaram
(closed precincts of a temple) of ancient Chidambaram Temple
says that King Kulothungan vanquished the extremely dense army of Cheras and Pandyas and also burnt down the Korkai (Tirunelveli) fort, the same way as son of Pandu (Arjuna) burnt Khandava forest.
Towards the end of the war Rama Varman Kulashekhara shifted the capital from ruined Mahodayapuram to Kollam and led a large army to stem the Cholas in the south. King Rama Varman Kulashekhara resolved to beat back the Cholas and rallied all his forces. A large body of Kulasekhara army was consisted of Nair suicide squads (Chavers) provided by various subordinate kings, a technique to which the Chola armies were not familiar. In the last decades of the 11th century, when the power of the Chola kingdom had weakened, that the Perumal of Mahodayapuram asserted his sovereignty. Kulothunga Chola I was defeated and withdrew towards Kottar. The cholapuram
records (around 1100 CE) that record the achievements of Kulothunga Chola I refer to this. The Cholas could not regain their influence beyond Nanjanad after this defeat.
Kulothunga Chola I did not take any serious attempt to regain the lost territories of the Cheras. It appears this was the ending point of War of Hundred Years between the Cholas and the Cheras. But this did not last long. The reign of the last Perumal, Ramakula Sekhara Perumal, was disturbed by internecine quarrels which led to his abdication and possible conversion.
The later life of Rama Varman Kulashekhara as the Kulasekhara king of Venad is shrouded in mystery. The local legends tell of the mysterious disappearance and conversion to Islam of Rama Varma Kulashekhara which, however, is neither corroborated by any contemporary record nor was mentioned by any of the several Arab and European travellers who visited Kerala including during that period. This event has been referred to as the partition of Kerala.
But, the Cheraman Juma Masjid
at Kodungallur, purportedly built or modified on the instruction of the Rama Varman Kulashekhara exhibits the style of middle Chola architecture and a team of historians who studied its foundation safely placed it in the 12th century. However, the end of Rama Varma Kulashekhara signaled the end of the dynasty from the ruins of which arose the state of Venad.
to Jews and Vazhapalli plates
the Kulasekhara rulers gave three Copper plate to the indigenous Christians called Nasranis. They gave the Nasranis various rights and privileges which were written on copper plates Five sheets of them are now in the custody of St. Thomas Christians. That include,
The languages used are old Tamil letters with some Grantha letters intermingled, Pahlavi, Kufic
and Hebrew.
These plates detail privileges awarded to the community by the then rulers. These influenced the development of the social structure in Kerala and privileges, rules for the communities. These are considered as one of the most important legal documents in the history of Kerala.
In Konganpada attacks (at the end of the 9th century or in the first years of 10th century) between Kongu king and Nedumpurayoor (Palakkad Raja) nairs. Kongu army,led by the Chola King Aditya I or Parantaka Chola I, was defeated by combined armies of Nedumpurayoor, Valluvanad, Ernad and Perumpadappu. In honour the valluvanad Raja received Kurissi Vilayan Chathanur and Kaithala villages from Nedumpurayoor. This event is even now celebrated as a historical event in Chittur taluk where the fight took place.
The king called Cheraman Perumal was the head of the administration at the capital city Mahodayapuram protected by fortresses. Cheraman Perumals inherited throne by a patrilineal system.Tharisapalli plates
issued by King Iyyanadikal Thiruvadikal in 849 AD mentions Theeyamalzhwar(Police officers) Channathalai(Administrative officers) Vellalas and Ezhavas but never mentioned Nairs or Namboothiris. The claim that sovereignty was constrained by the pre-existing power of the Brahmin settlements and the hereditary Nair chieftains has no basis as they are not Tamils but of Tulunadus Bunt (community)
.The Various subcastes of Bunt (community)
such as Nayara Menava Kuruba and Samantha estabilished Matriarchal dynasties in Kerala only after 1310 when Malik Kafur
invaded Kerala. The first ever mention of Nairs is at Thrikodithanam mentions a Chennan Nair who was a Drummer migrated from Tulunadu. Each Nadu or province had its own hereditary or nominated governor.The Kulasekhara kingdom was a Tamil kingdom ruled by various Tamil tribes such as Villavar, Malayar,Vanavaretc. So, the administration of the provinces were invested on powerful Nair feudatory chiefs, who were controlled by Koyiladhikarikal and the local assemblies called Munnuttuvar, Anhuttuvar etc. Each nadu in turn was divided into desams governed by Desavazhis, who were controlled by Kuttams, popular bodies. The lowest unit was the kara which was governed by a panchayat. The executive officers were called Adhikaris, the Commander-in-chief was called Patanayakan, the 2nd in command was called Kizh-patanayakan, the Treasury Officer was the Bhandaramkappan. Elaborate arrangements were made for the management of temples. The general control of the administration of temples was invested in the Koyiladhikarikal. A committee called Sablia was charged with the responsibility of the administration of each temple, though for day-to-day work, the committee appointed a secretary called Potuval. Law and order was maintained and a penal code was comprehensive. Common forms of punishment were fines and imprisonment. A variety of taxes, such as Patavaram (land tax), Talaikanam (professional tax), Polippon (sales tax), Kundanazhi (tax on toddy), and Mulaivila (tax on women labours) were levied from the people. The Kulasekharas had a well equipped Tamil army of Villavars with Nair army and esp. naval forces.
or Nair
feudal chieftains. Most of these Nair matriarchal city state rulers claim their descent from the Kulasekharas. The dynasty of Venad
(hence Travancore
) is generally regarded by some as their direct descendants since the last king of the Kulasekharas was the first king of an independent Venad. But from them, Kolathiri, Samoothiri, and Kulasekhara Venattadi
emerged successful. The Saamoothiris were the only rulers who were capable of and came close to establishing a pan-Kerala state since the disintegration of the Kulasekharas.
band Kula Shaker
take their name from this Dynasty, borrowing the name in a modified version from Kulasekhara das, the first initiated European disciple of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Kulasekhara das released his own music CD in 2008 on iTunes under the name 'Kula'.
Middle kingdoms of India
Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 3rd century BC after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding rise of the Satavahana dynasty, beginning with Simuka, from 230 BC...
Hindu
Hindu
Hindu refers to an identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. As used in the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" is also attributed to all persons professing any Indian religion...
dynasty founded by the saint King Kulashekhara Varman. The dynasty ruled the whole of modern Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
state (Malabar or Kudamalainadu), Guddalore and some parts of Nilgiri district and Salem - Coimbatore region in southern India between 9th and 12th centuries AD mostly from the outskirts of the sea port Muziris
Muziris
Muziris is an ancient sea-port in Southwestern India on the Periyar River 3.2 km from its mouth. The derivation of the name Muziris is said to be from "Mucciripattanam," "mucciri" means "cleft palate" and "pattanam" means "city". Near Muziris, Periyar River was branched into two like a...
, called Mahodayapuram, on the banks of River Periyar
Periyar
Periyar may refer to*Periyar , a major river in Kerala*Periyar district, the erstwhile name for Erode district in Tamil Nadu*Periyar National Park*Periyar E. V. Ramasamy, a Tamil social reformer...
. The Kulasekharas traces their ancestry back to the powerful Chera dynasty
Chera dynasty
Chera Dynasty in South India is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas, they formed the three principle warring Iron Age Tamil kingdoms in southern India...
of the Tamil
Tamil people
Tamil people , also called Tamils or Tamilians, are an ethnic group native to Tamil Nadu, India and the north-eastern region of Sri Lanka. Historic and post 15th century emigrant communities are also found across the world, notably Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, South Africa, Australia, Canada,...
Sangam
Sangam
The Tamil Sangams were assemblies of Tamil scholars and poets that, according to traditional Tamil accounts, occurred in the remote past. Three assemblies are described...
Age. The age of Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram is known in history as the Golden Age of Kerala.
After the disappearance of the Kalabhras
Kalabhras
The Kalabhras dynasty ruled over the entire Ancient Tamil country between the 3rd and the 6th century in an era of South Indian history called the Kalabhra interregnum. The Kalabhras displaced the kingdoms of the early Cholas, early Pandayan and Chera dynasties. Information about its origin and...
rule in south India the Chera dynasty was revived around 9th century as Kulasekharas from Kodungallur
Kodungallur
Kodungallur is a municipality in Thrissur District, in the state of Kerala, India on the Malabar Coast. Kodungallur is located about 29 km northwest of Kochi city and 38 km Southwest of Thrissur, on National Highway 17 . Muziris the ancient seaport at the mouth of the Periyar River was...
(Mahodayapuram or Thiruvanchikulam
Thiruvanchikulam
Thiruvanchikkulam was the capital of the Chera kingdom. Thiruvanchikulam is situated near the modern city of Kochi in the Kerala Province of modern India south to Mahodayapuram and north to former Muziris, the famous sea port on the Malabar coast...
) rather than from their former capital in Kongunad, Vanchikarur
Karur
Karur is a large town and a municipality in Karur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu situated on the banks of Amaravati. Karur district was formed on 30 September 1995 by trifurcating Tiruchirappalli district. It is the administrative headquarters of Karur District. Karur has a very long...
. The kings took the title of Perumal during this period and patronised Vaishnavite or Shavaite sects. The Kulasekharas were from the Villavar
Villavar
Villavar were the primary rulers among the Dravidians. Villavar emerged from the ancient martial clans of India. The Tamil Villavar were also known as Eyinar under the Pandyan Dynasty and Īḻanar in Sri Lanka and under the Chera Dynasty....
martial clan and the Chera king had the title Villavar Kon indicating Villavar clans founded theancient Chera Kingdom and supported by Paluvettaraiyar
Paluvettaraiyar
They were petty chiefs who were ruling present Kila-Paluvur and Mela-Paluvur, in the Udaiyarpalayam taluk of the Tiruchirapalli district, during Chola kingdom with the title Paluvettaraiyar,They were responsible for a number of benefactions to the temples at this place and to have been related to...
, Vanavar and Malayar and other ethnic Tamil clans. The Later Cheras had a second interior capital at Udagai in the Kongunad. They shared the present day Kerala state with the Mushikas
Mushika Kingdom
Mushika Kingdom was an ancient kingdom of the Tamil Sangam age in present day northern Kerala, India ruled by the Royal dynasty of the same name. They ruled the strip of land between Mangaluru in the north and Vadagara in the south...
in the north and the Ay
Ay kingdom
The Ay was the earliest ruling dynasty of the southern parts of present-day Kerala, south India. The Ay kings claimed descent from Yadavas or Ayar....
s in the south and other Chieftains ruling small regions of rest of the region. The kingdom was in continues wars with the neighboring Chola dynasty
Chola Dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of Maurya Empire; the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until...
and the Rashtrakuta Empire leading the way for enormous increase in the power of Namboothiri Brahmins in the socio-economic life. And as a result of continuous wars with the Cholas, the education institutes and temples were progressively neglected. Centres of education were converted to Kalaries for imparting military training by Kalari experts. Suicide squads were set up to meet the challenge. Rama Varma Kulashekhara (r. 1090–1102), the last of the Kulasekharas and the first Kulasekhara Venad ruler moved his capital to a provincial capital Kollam when Later Chola king Kulothunga Chola I
Kulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
sacked Mahodyapuram. The death of Rama Varma Kulashekhara signalled the end of the Mahodayapuram Cheras and from the ruins of which arose the Kulasekhara state of Venad
Venad
Venad Swarupam was one of the three prominent late medieval Hindu feudal kingdoms on Malabar Coast, south India, along with Kingdom of Calicut and Kingdom of Cannanore. In the early 14th century, Venad ruler Ravi Varma Kulasekhara had established a short-lived supremacy over southern India...
and hence the kingdom of Travancore.
In spite of these political disturbances, there was intense religious activity in Kerala during the Kulasekhara ages. While Jainism
Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state...
and Buddhism declined, Hinduism]] made phenomenal progress. Already Christianity and Judaism had struck deep roots in Kerala. It is possible that Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
also made its advent into Kerala in the 7th century AD. The development of Malayalam language
Malayalam language
Malayalam , is one of the four major Dravidian languages of southern India. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India with official language status in the state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry. It is spoken by 35.9 million people...
and a unique identity of Malayali
Malayali
Malayali is the term used to refer to the native speakers of Malayalam, originating from the Indian state of Kerala...
emerged during this period.
Literary sources and academic debates
Tapatismnwrana and Subhadradhananjaya, two dramas written Kulasekhara Varman establish the fact that the author was a ruler of Kerala with Mahodayapuram as his capital. A Sanskrit manuscript discovered from Tekke Madham, which gives details of the life of Padmapada, a disciple of the Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara (788-820 AD), spells out a contemporary ruler of Mahodayapuram. Sivanandalahari of Adi Shankara mentions a king by name Rajasekhara. These works establishes that that Adi Shankara was a contemporary of Kulasekhara Varman (ruled 800-820 AD) and Rajashekhara Varman (ruled 820-44 AD).The court astronomer of Sthanu Ravi Varman (ruled 844-85), Sankaranarayana
Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa
Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa was an Indian astronomer and mathematician in the court of King Sthanu Ravi Varman of the Kulasekhara dynasty in Kerala. He is believed to have established the first astronomical observatory in India at Kodungallur in Kerala...
, through his work Sankaranarayaniyam has contributed necessary evidence to establish the chronology of Sthanu Ravi Varman. Yamaka Kavyas of Vasudeva Bhattatiri is of great historical value. The devotional songs of the Saiva Nayanars and the Vaishnava Alwars cannot be neglected. Works like the Muthollayiram (C. 800 CE), Perumal Thirumozhi of Kulasekhara Varman and Periyapuranam of Sekkilar (12th century CE) contain vivid historical accounts of the Kulasekhara kings. Takkayagapparani of Ottakuthan (12th century CE) points to the transfer of Chera capital from Karur to Mahodayapuram. The poet Tholan
Tholan
Tholan is believed to have been the first Namboothiri poet of Malayalam. Believed to have lived in the 9th century AD, Tholan is thought to have pioneered the use of Manipravalam in poetry...
is also believed to have lived in the 9th century AD.
The work of historian M.G.S. Narayanan is often regarded as the primary material in Later Chera studies.
The rule of the Kulasekharas is a period in Kerala history which underwent re-interpretation as a result of epigraphic evidence. Traditionally, it was believed that the Perumals (kings) who ruled Kerala were invited from outside Kerala by the Brahmin community to rule over the country for a limited period of 12 years after which the Perumal was to abdicate and retire from public life. The story is related to the founding myth of Kerala by Hindu god Parasurama and the settlement of 64 Brahmin villages. Keralolpathi gave credence to this story which was repeated by orthodox historians. Even historians like K.A. Nilakanta Sastri accepted the story of the imported Perumals and suggested that Kulasekhara Alwar, the first Later Chera ruler, was one such foreign ruler invited to rule over Kerala.
Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai analysed epigraphic and other documentary evidence to establish that a Chera dynasty, different from the Sangham era Chera kingdom, existed in the ninth century with their capital at Mahodayapuram (Makothai). He named this dynasty the Kulashekharas of Mahodayapuram. Narayanan furthered and refined this work.
After the Kalabhra interregnum
The Kalabhras dynasty ruled over the entire ancient Tamil country between the 3rd and the 6th century in an era of South Indian history called the Kalabhra interregnum. The Kalabhras displaced the kingdoms of the early Cholas, Pandayas and Chera dynasties. Little is known about the CherasChera dynasty
Chera Dynasty in South India is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas, they formed the three principle warring Iron Age Tamil kingdoms in southern India...
between the two dynasties. Mostly, they were the allies of the powerful Pallavas, against the Pandyas and Ay
Ay
Ay was the penultimate Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's 18th dynasty. He held the throne of Egypt for a brief four-year period , although he was a close advisor to two and perhaps three of the pharaohs who ruled before him and was the power behind the throne during Tutankhamun's reign...
s.
The Kalabhras were defeated around the 6th century with the revival of Pallava and Pandya power. A Pandya ruler, Maravarman Rajasimha I
Maravarman Rajasimha I
Maravarman Rajasimha I was an one of early Pandyan kings. He was the son and successor of Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran. He ruled over the Pandyan kingdom aggressively and gained territory by forging an alliance with Chitramaya against the Pallava king, Nandivarman Pallavamalla.-Wars and Conquests:Kongu...
(c. 730 – 765 AD), mentioned in a number of Pandya copper-plate inscriptions
Indian copper plate inscriptions
Indian copper plate inscriptions play an important role in the reconstruction of the history of India. Prior to their discovery, historians were forced to rely on ambiguous archaeological findings such as religious text of uncertain origin and interpretations of bits of surviving traditions,...
, was a prominent ruler during the early 8th century CE. He claims to have defeated a prominent Chera king. The name of the Chera king is not known, however from the details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory ceded seems to have included the entire Kerala and the Southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli, with capital at Karur
Karur
Karur is a large town and a municipality in Karur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu situated on the banks of Amaravati. Karur district was formed on 30 September 1995 by trifurcating Tiruchirappalli district. It is the administrative headquarters of Karur District. Karur has a very long...
.
The copper plates of the Pallava
Pallava
The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram...
dynasty kings of the period give us a glimpse about their field of action. In the reign of Pandya king Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (765-790 CE), the Cheras was still in the Karur
Karur
Karur is a large town and a municipality in Karur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu situated on the banks of Amaravati. Karur district was formed on 30 September 1995 by trifurcating Tiruchirappalli district. It is the administrative headquarters of Karur District. Karur has a very long...
region as a close ally of the Pallava dynasty. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan defeated the local king Atiya of the Ay kingdom, at first, at Ayiraveli Aiyilur, and pursued him to Pugalur
Pugalur
Pugalur is the area covering lands both in Nanjai and Punjai.Nanjai refers to the land with plenty of water usually with water bodies like river,canal,pond etc...
and vanquished him. The Pallava and Chera came to help the Atiya, but were also defeated. That this war between Cheras and Pallava on the one hand and the Pandya on the other, took place at Karur is indicated by Dalavaypuram plates which specifically say Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan defeated the Kadava (Pallava) at Karur. But the Vaishnava saint Thirunmangai Alvar, states that the Pallava won a victory over the Pandya at Karur. This would indicate that the Karur battle was indecisive.
During this period, the port Vizhinjam (former capital of the Ay kingdom), seems to have slipped out of the hand of the Cheras and was controlled by the Ay kingdom. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan states in his Srivaramangalam plates, that he defeated the Ay king at Vizhinjam. But, within a short period, the Cheras regained the Vizhinjam area. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan's son, Sri Mara Srivallabha, claims to have killed the Chera in a battle at Vizhinjam. But, again around 850 to 900 CE the Vizhinjam region was under the control of the Ay kings Karunan Tadakkan and Aviyalantadakkan.
Kulasekhara Varman
Kulasehkhara dynasty was named after the founder and devotional Vaishnavite poet and one of the 12 Alvars, Kulashekhara Varman (r. 800-825 CE), described himself as Villavarkon ("the king of Villavars") in his poems. Kulasekhara Varman is also known as Kulasekhara Alvar or Ramarajasekharan. The initial territories of Kulasekhara Varman included Kudamalainadu only. Kulashekhara Varman re-united the present day Kerala state into a united homogeneous and ruled from the capital city of Mahodayapuram (present Kodungallur) built around the great Siva temple of Tiruvanchikulam. The former capital, Vanchi, was in the hands of the Pandyas and no trace of the palace at Makotai remains today. The author of the Kokasandesa found it in ruins even in the 16th century. During his Zenith, the Kulasekhara kingdom extended throughout the present day Kerala state, Nilgiri dt. including Gudalur and the Salem-CoimbatoreCoimbatore
Coimbatore , also known as Kovai , is the second largest city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is a major commercial centre in Tamil Nadu and is known as the "Manchester of South India"....
region. It was probably during this period Udagai became the second capital of the Kulasekara dynasty with a member of the Kulasekara family appointed to rule over this region.
Kulashekhara Varman was also called himself as Kongarkon ("the king of the Kongu people") hailing from Kollinagar (Karur
Karur
Karur is a large town and a municipality in Karur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu situated on the banks of Amaravati. Karur district was formed on 30 September 1995 by trifurcating Tiruchirappalli district. It is the administrative headquarters of Karur District. Karur has a very long...
). Though the Kongars were defeated by the first Chera king Cheran Senguttuvan in the 2nd century CE, from 5th century CE the Kongu region had been occupied by Western Ganga Dynasty. The title Kongarkon indicates Kulashekhara Varman had regained control of Kongu (Salem-Coimbatore region) from the Western Ganga Dynasty in his reign. Other titles of Kulashekhara Varman mentioned in the Perumal thirumozhi are Malayarkon, Kollikkavalan (Kolli is a mountain in Namakkal districtt., Tamil Nadu), Koikkon (the ruler of Kozhi or Uraiyur near Trichy, the Chola capital) and Koodal Nayagan (master of Kudal or Madurai
Madurai
Madurai is the third largest city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It served as the capital city of the Pandyan Kingdom. It is the administrative headquarters of Madurai District and is famous for its temples built by Pandyan and...
, the Pandya capital).
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (IAST: pronounced , (Sanskrit: , ) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as ' and ' was an Indian philosopher from Kalady of present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta...
, the Hindu philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
, was his contemporary. Kulasekhara Varman is said to have married the Pandya Kings' daughter. He made pilgrimages to Thiruvarangam (Sri Rangam) in Chola kingdom, and Thiruvenkatam (Thiruppathi) in Thondainadu. It is believed that he renounced the crown to become a Hindu saint and lived in Srirangam, an important Vaishnavaite center, to serve the deity of Ranganatha. He died in Mannar Kovil in 820 AD.
Kulashekhara Varman was also one of the celebrated Tamil Bhakti
Bhakti
In Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
cult poet saints (alvar
Alvar
An alvar is a biological environment based on a limestone plain with thin or no soil and, as a result, sparse vegetation. It is also known as a pavement barren although this term is also used for similar landforms based on sandstone. In the United Kingdom the exposed landform is called a limestone...
s) and his poems are called Perumal thirumozhi. Works such as the Tamil language Perumal Tirumozhi and Sanskrit dramas like Mukundamala, Tapatisamvarna, Subhadradhanjaya and Vichchinnabhiseka and a prose work Aschrya Manjari in the same language have been attributed to him.
It was during time of Kulasekhara Varman, the traditions of Koothambalams in Hindu Temples and the Devadasi system began. Temple sculpture making and drawing proceeded long in this period. Salais or schools associated with temples were very famous (Kanthalur Salai, Parthivapuram Salai, Thiruvalla Salai, Moozhikkulam Salai etc.). They were residential in nature, with students living in proximity to the teacher.
Rama Rajashekhara Varman
The second and fourth Kulasehara kings Rajashekhara Varman and Varma Kulashekhara (885- 917 AD) spearheaded Hindu religious movements in their roles as celebrated Saivite and Vaishnavite saints respectively.Rajashekhara Varman (usually identified with Cheraman Perumal Nayanar) was the second in line of the Mahodayapuram Cheras. But, recently some historians regard him as the first Mahodayapuram Chera ruler. Unlike his Vaishnavite father, Rajashekhara Varman was an ardent devotee of God Siva and was a Saivaite-Nayanar regal saint. It was during his reign (820-44 AD) the Kollavarsham began. Rajashekhara Varman was born and ruled in Mahodayapuram (Thiruvanchikkulam). But, he is also said to have ruled from the original seat of Cheras, Karuvur Vanchi (modern Karur). His kingdom included ruled the Koduntamizh regions of Kuttanadu, Venadu and Tenpandinadu, the first two north and south modern Kerala and the third, the southern tail end districts of Tamil Nadu.
Rajashekhara Varman spent most of his time in religious activities and in meditation at the Siva Temple in Thiruvanchikkulam. It was during this time that a Saivaite saint. Sundaramoorthy Nayanar
Sundaramoorthy Nayanar
Suntarar , also known as Sundaramurti, was one of the most prominent among the Nayanars, the Shaiva bhakti poets of Tamil Nadu. He was a contemporary of Cheraman Perumal and Kotpuli Nayanar who also figure in the 63 Nayanmars...
. made a pilgrimage to the Thiruvarur Temple in the neighbouring Chola kingdom. Rajashekhara Varman with desire to meet this Tamil Saiva Saint, also went to Thiruvarur at this same time. He wrote Siva praising Tamil hyms called Mummanikkovai during this period in Thiruvarur. After meeting with Sundaramoorthy Nayanar, Rajashekhara Varman went with him to the Siva temple at Vedaranniyam in the Chola kingdom and other Siva temples all over the Pandya kingdom. He composed further hyms in Tamil in praise of God Siva known as "Ponnvanna Anthathi" and "Thirukkalyana Gnana Ulla". All the above hyms composed by him have been included in the eleventh "Thirumurai" (Thirumurais are a collection of the sacred hyms in Tamil, sung on God Siva by various Tamil Saiva Saints of Tamil Nadu and few from the Kerala State). Finally at the request of Rajashekhara Varman, Sundaramoorthy Nayanar opted to visit the palace of this Cheras at his capital city of Mahodayapuram, travelling through Kongunadu. Kongumandala Satakam says that Rajashekhara Varman went to Kayilai with his friend and Saivaite saint called Sundaramoorthy Nayanar. Both Rajashekhara Varman and Sundaramoorthy Nayanar died in Thiruvanchikkulam in 844 AD. Some historians say that he died unable to bear the grief of the death of this great saint.
Rajashekhara Varman is also reputed to have issued the Vazhapalli plates. However, the recently discovered Kurumathur Inscription (from Areekkode in Malappuram District) by Rajashekhara Varman dates 871 CE, proving to be the earliest documented evidence of the Chera rule out-dating the Vazhapalli plates.
Sthanu Ravi Varman
Vijayalaya Chola
Vijayalaya was the Chola king of South India Thanjavur during c. 848 C.E. and re-established the Chola dynastic rule.-Dark age of Cholas:The ancient Chola kingdom once famous in Tamil literature and in the writings of Greek merchants and geographers faded in to darkness after c 300 C.E. Cholas...
. Sthanu Ravi Varman (sometimes called Ravi Varman Tribuvanachakravarti Kulasekaradeva or (Ko)kandan Ravi) was too a Shaivaite like his father. His queen was called Kilanadigal. Sthanu Ravi Varman and his daughter both being of Saivite faith, and with the prevailing good relations that existed with the Chola country, had made their endowments to the Siva temples in the Chola country.
With the rise of the Cholas in the middle of the 9th century, Aditya I
Aditya I
Aditya I , the son of Vijayalaya, was the first great Chola king of South India who extended the Chola dominions by the conquest of the Pallavas.- Pallava Civil War :...
, (c. 871 – c. 907 CE) expanded the Chola kingdom by defeating the Pallavas. But, friendly relations appear to have existed between the Kulasekhara under Sthanu Ravi Varman and the Cholas in the reign of Aditya I. Sthanu Ravi Varman is stated in inscriptions to have received royal honours from Aditya I. During the same period, Sthanu Ravi Varman helped Aditya I to capture Kongunad from the Pandyas. A general named Vikkiannan (the chieftan of Kodumbalur) was greatly instrumental in winning this war, and was rewarded jointly by the Chola and Chera kings with a crown, palace, elephants, royal palanquin, drum and the given the title "Sembiyan Tamil Verl". The amicable relations which the Kulasekharas maintained with the Chola is borne out by the Tillaisthanam inscriptions.
Aditya I’s son, Parantaka I
Parantaka I
Parantaka Chola I ruled the Chola kingdom in southern India for forty-eight years. The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.-The Invasion of the Pandya Kingdom:...
had a queen by the name Villavan Mahadeviyar probably the daughter of the Venad ruler of the Chera country, who refer themselves as "Villavar'. By some historians this Venad king is often identified with Sthanu Ravi Varman. So, Parantaka I married a daughter of Sthanu Ravi Varman called Villavan Mahadeviyar. Sthanu Ravi Varman's other daughter by the name Kilanadigal married king Vijayaragadeva from another Chera royal family ruling a part of Kerala. After Aditya I, Parantaka Chola I had the Kulasekharas as his close ally and the relationship were further strengthened during this reign.
Parantaka I
Parantaka I
Parantaka Chola I ruled the Chola kingdom in southern India for forty-eight years. The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.-The Invasion of the Pandya Kingdom:...
also married Udaiya Pirattiyar Kokkilan Adigal, the daughter of Rama Varman Kulasekhara, son of Sthanu Ravi Varman. Parantaka I also married the daughter of another Chera king Paluvettaraiyar Kandan Amuthan named Arumoli Nangai ruling from west Paluvur of the present Tirutchirappalli in Tamil Nadu bordering Kerala. Sometimes, Kandan Amuthan is identified as Sthanu Ravi Varman himself. Such as in the Anbil Plates of Parantaka Chola II
Parantaka Chola II
Parantaka Chola II ruled for approximately twelve years. Parantaka II was also known by the name Madhurantakan Sundara Chola. He was the son of Arinjaya Chola. His mother’s name was Kalyani, a princes from the clan of Vaidumbas...
refers Sthanu Ravi Varman as the prince of Kerala, Kandan Amudanar, a Paluvettaraiyar. In fact, Paluvettaraiyar were petty chiefs ruling present Kilapaluvur and Melapaluvur, in the Udaiyarpalayam taluk of the Tiruchirapalli district, during that period. Parantaka I
Parantaka I
Parantaka Chola I ruled the Chola kingdom in southern India for forty-eight years. The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.-The Invasion of the Pandya Kingdom:...
had an elder son by Kokkilan Adigal named Rajathithya, a second son by the name Gandarathitha and a younger son by Arulmoli Nangai named Arinjaya Chola (Sometimes Arinjaya Chola is identified as the son of Parantaka Chola I and Villavan Mahadeviyar).
However, during this age of Sthanu Ravi Varman, Chera-Pandya relations were also friendly. Pandya king Parantaha Vira Narayana (860-905 AD) married the Kulasekhara princess Vanavan Mathevi, and to them was born Maravarman Rajasimha II
Maravarman Rajasimha II
Maravarman Rajasimha II was the last Pandyan king of the first Pandyan empire. He was the son and successor of Parantaka Viranarayana. He ruled the Pandyan kingdom from 900 to 920 AD.-Conquests:...
(900-920 AD), another Pandya monarch. Ayyan Atikal Tiruvatikal, who issued the famous Tharisapalli plates
Tharisapalli plates
Tharisapalli plates or Tarsishapalli sasanangal are a set of copper-plate grants that were given to the Assyrian Monk Marwan Sr Easho or Iso by Venad ruler Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal in 849 AD...
(Third Quilon copper plate, Tharissapalli Deed I or Kottayam plate) of 849 AD for the Later Chera king to Isodatta Virai for Tharissapalli (church) at Curakkeni Kollam, was the governor of Venad
Venad
Venad Swarupam was one of the three prominent late medieval Hindu feudal kingdoms on Malabar Coast, south India, along with Kingdom of Calicut and Kingdom of Cannanore. In the early 14th century, Venad ruler Ravi Varma Kulasekhara had established a short-lived supremacy over southern India...
under Sthanu Ravi Varman.
But, some historians say that it was given by king Sthanu Ravi Varman himself, to Isodatta Virai. This is the first deed in Kerala that gives the exact date.
In same year as of the Tharisapalli plates
Tharisapalli plates
Tharisapalli plates or Tarsishapalli sasanangal are a set of copper-plate grants that were given to the Assyrian Monk Marwan Sr Easho or Iso by Venad ruler Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal in 849 AD...
, the villagers of the Chalukkipparu has gifted a village named Chathanur in the Thondainadu to the temple of Siva named as Tiruayanisuramudaiya Nayanar. The Kulasekhara Queen Kilanadigal provided gold for a lamp at the temple of Thiruvannamalai in Thondaimanadu (adjacent to Chola kingdom) in the
year 851 AD. Sthanu Ravi Varman also gifted land for lighting lamp at the temple at Kuttalam in Pandya kingdom in 870 AD. The observations of the Arab Merchant Sulaiman (851 AD) affirms the flourshing trade between Kerala and China during his region.
A native of Nandikkaraiputtur (Chera kingdom) Velankumaran was the general of the Chola prince Rajathithya, son of Parantaka and Kokkilan Adigal. But, he died very young in a war in Thondainadu.
Sankaranarayana
SankaranarayanaŚaṅkaranārāyaṇa
Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa was an Indian astronomer and mathematician in the court of King Sthanu Ravi Varman of the Kulasekhara dynasty in Kerala. He is believed to have established the first astronomical observatory in India at Kodungallur in Kerala...
, who composed the astronomical work Laghubhāskarīyavivaraṇa, attended Sthanu Ravi Varman's court. He is believed to have established the first astronomical observatory in India at the capital-Kodungallur
Kodungallur
Kodungallur is a municipality in Thrissur District, in the state of Kerala, India on the Malabar Coast. Kodungallur is located about 29 km northwest of Kochi city and 38 km Southwest of Thrissur, on National Highway 17 . Muziris the ancient seaport at the mouth of the Periyar River was...
. The first extant reference to a place of observation with some instruments in India is in the treatise Laghubhāskarīyavivaraṇa authored by Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa. In this work, Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa speaks of a place with instruments in the capital city Mahodayapuram. The observatory was fitted with an armillary sphere which is a model of the celestial sphere
Celestial sphere
In astronomy and navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of arbitrarily large radius, concentric with the Earth and rotating upon the same axis. All objects in the sky can be thought of as projected upon the celestial sphere. Projected upward from Earth's equator and poles are the...
. At the directions of Śaṅkaranārāyaṇa, in every Kadigai duration of 34 minutes, bells were sounded at different important centres of the town to announce correct time.
The following is a translation of the verses in Laghubhāskarīyavivaraṇa containing references to the existence of an observatory in Mahodayapuram:
"(To the king): Oh Ravivarmadeva( Sthanu Ravi Varman), now deign to tell us quickly, reading off from the armillary sphere
Armillary sphere
An armillary sphere is a model of objects in the sky , consisting of a spherical framework of rings, centred on Earth, that represent lines of celestial longitude and latitude and other astronomically important features such as the ecliptic...
installed (at the observatory
Observatory
An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geology, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed...
) in Mahodayapuram, duly fitted with all the relevant circles and with the sign (-degree
Degree (angle)
A degree , usually denoted by ° , is a measurement of plane angle, representing 1⁄360 of a full rotation; one degree is equivalent to π/180 radians...
-minute
Minute
A minute is a unit of measurement of time or of angle. The minute is a unit of time equal to 1/60th of an hour or 60 seconds. In the UTC time scale, a minute on rare occasions has 59 or 61 seconds; see leap second. The minute is not an SI unit; however, it is accepted for use with SI units...
) markings, the time of the rising point of the ecliptic
Ecliptic
The ecliptic is the plane of the earth's orbit around the sun. In more accurate terms, it is the intersection of the celestial sphere with the ecliptic plane, which is the geometric plane containing the mean orbit of the Earth around the Sun...
(lagna) when the Sun
Sun
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields...
is at 10° in the Sign of Capricorn
Capricornus
Capricornus is one of the constellations of the zodiac; it is often called Capricorn, especially when referring to the corresponding astrological sign. Its name is Latin for "horned male goat" or "goat horn", and it is commonly represented in the form of a sea-goat: a mythical creature that is half...
, and also when the Sun
Sun
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields...
is at the end of the Sign Libra
Libra (constellation)
Libra is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for weighing scales, and its symbol is . It is fairly faint, with no first magnitude stars, and lies between Virgo to the west and Scorpius to the east.-Notable features:]...
, which I have noted."
Govindaswamin who wrote commentary on Mahabhaskariya of Bhaskara I
Bhaskara I
Bhāskara was a 7th century Indian mathematician, who was apparently the first to write numbers in the Hindu-Arabic decimal system with a circle for the zero, and who gave a unique and remarkable rational approximation of the sine function in his commentary on Aryabhata's work...
belonged to Kerala in Mahodayapuram.
Relations with Cholas deteriorates
Maravarman Rajasimha II
Maravarman Rajasimha II was the last Pandyan king of the first Pandyan empire. He was the son and successor of Parantaka Viranarayana. He ruled the Pandyan kingdom from 900 to 920 AD.-Conquests:...
of the Pandyas. Maravarman Rajasimha II
Maravarman Rajasimha II
Maravarman Rajasimha II was the last Pandyan king of the first Pandyan empire. He was the son and successor of Parantaka Viranarayana. He ruled the Pandyan kingdom from 900 to 920 AD.-Conquests:...
escaped to Ceylon, and with the assistance of the king of Sri Lanka fought back with Parantaka Chola and his allies namely the Pallavas and the Chera king Rama Varma Kulasekhara at Thirupurambiyam. But he was defeated and again took refuge in Ceylon. The foreign traveller Al-Masudi
Al-Masudi
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Mas'udi , was an Arab historian and geographer, known as the "Herodotus of the Arabs." Al-Masudi was one of the first to combine history and scientific geography in a large-scale work, Muruj adh-dhahab...
visited Kerala and left behind an account of the life of the people during Rama Varma Kulasekhara's reign.
His successor Kotha Ravi Varman (917-44 CE) is known as the author of innumerable inscriptions. These have greatly assisted the historians in solving the riddles relating to the chronology and limits of the Kulasekhara kingdom. His kingdom comprised practically the whole of Kerala. The relations with the Cholas deteriorated for the first in centuries during his period, because of two reasons. The annexation of the Ay kingdom by the Kulasekharas and the granting of political asylum to the Pandya ruler, Maravarman Rajasimha II
Maravarman Rajasimha II
Maravarman Rajasimha II was the last Pandyan king of the first Pandyan empire. He was the son and successor of Parantaka Viranarayana. He ruled the Pandyan kingdom from 900 to 920 AD.-Conquests:...
. Being a strategist, the Kotha Ravi Varman took effective steps to garrison the frontiers in order to keep enemies at bay. Maravarman Rajasimha II was the last Pandyan king of the first Pandyan empire. He had once plundered the Chera capital at Vanchi in Kongu Nadu. After the successive defeats at the hands of Parantaka Chola I, Rajasimha II fled to Ceylon but then unable to secure refuge, he went to Kerala, as he himself had descended in part from a chera king where he spent the rest of his days keeping a low profile.
King Indu Kotha Varman (944-62 CE) succeeded Kotha Ravi Varman. During his time the Chola-Kulasekhara relations remained nearly tense. It was however eased with the death of Parantaka I
Parantaka I
Parantaka Chola I ruled the Chola kingdom in southern India for forty-eight years. The best part of his reign was marked by increasing success and prosperity.-The Invasion of the Pandya Kingdom:...
in 955 CE .
However, Arinjaya Chola married the daughter of Indu Kotha Varman named Athithan Kothai Piratiyar.
Wars with the Cholas
Bhaskara Ravi Varman I (962-1019 CE), the next ruler has immortalised himself in Kerala history with his Jewish Copper PlateJewish Copper Plate
Jewish Copper Plate was a copper plate grant given to Jews by Kulasekhara king Bhaskara Ravi Varman I , immortalizing himself in Kerala history...
grant of 1000 CE. His kingdom stretched from the present day Calicut to Tiruvanandapuram region encompassing the Kudamalainadu, Kongunadu and Venad. Bhaskara Ravi Varman II appears to have assisted Bhaskara Ravi Varman I in ruling his Chera Kingdom as his co-regent probably from Udagai in the Kongunad. It was during his reign the War of Hundred Years (c. 990 to 1105 CE) against the Cholas began. The authenticity of this event is strongly disputed among the scholars. One of the important findings of M.G.S. Narayanan was that there was no substance to support the theory of a hundred years of war between the Cheras and the Cholas. The Cholas had conquered the Chera kingdom but the latter continued to rule as feudatories of the mighty Chola kingdom for well over a hundred years.
However, the King faced total defeat by the hands of Chola king Raja Raja Chola I. Raja Raja Chola I invaded Kulasekhara kingdom in 994-995 AD and destroyed the navy of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I in the famous Kandalur War
Kandalur War
The Kandalur War was a naval battle between Chola Empire and Later Chera forces at the port-town of Kandalur salai , near Vizhinjam in present day Kerala state, South India around the end of the 10th century AD and was the beginning of the larger military campaigns of the Chola Empire under Raja...
.
But according to M. G. S., there was no substance to support the theory of a Hundred Years of War between the Cheras (Kulasekharas) and the Cholas.
The Cholas had conquered the Chera kingdom but the latter continued to rule as feudatories of the mighty Chola kingdom for well over a hundred years. It was only in the last decades of the 11 {+t} {+h} century, when the power of the Chola kingdom had weakened, that the Perumal of Mahodayapuram asserted his sovereignty.
Raja Raja Chola I wanted the disruption of the supply lines of trained warriors and armory from Kandalur Salai to the Ay kingdom (Ay kingdom was under the rule of Cheras and were the allies of the Pandyas). So, he waged war on the Kandalur Salai in 988 AD, and partly destroyed this military academy. But, soon the Cheras reinstated their positions again in Kandalur Salai and continued with the functions. This made Raja Raja Chola I to wage war again on Kandalur Salai in 994-995 AD, and effectively destroyed the navel academy.
One of Raja Raja Chola I's queens was Villavanmathevi, the daughter of the king of Venadu of Chera kingdom. He also had a queen known as Panchavanmathevi (who was the daughter of a Paluvettaraiyar called Kandan Maravan, the Chera king of Paluvur on the west of Thirutchirappalli, and was mother of Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
)
Son of Arinjaya Chola, Parantaka Chola II
Parantaka Chola II
Parantaka Chola II ruled for approximately twelve years. Parantaka II was also known by the name Madhurantakan Sundara Chola. He was the son of Arinjaya Chola. His mother’s name was Kalyani, a princes from the clan of Vaidumbas...
married Paranthahan Theviammanar, another daughter of Indu Kotha Varman. The Chola monarch Uththama Chola
Uththama Chola
Uttama Chola ascended the Chola throne c. 970 C.E. succeeding Parantaka Chola II. Uttama was the son of the illustrious Sembiyan Mahadevi and the cousin of Parantaka II.- Controversial ascension :...
had a queen called Panchavanmatheviyar, the daughter of the Chera king Paluvettaraiyar known as Kandan
Sundera Cholan.
After the Kandalur War
Kandalur War
The Kandalur War was a naval battle between Chola Empire and Later Chera forces at the port-town of Kandalur salai , near Vizhinjam in present day Kerala state, South India around the end of the 10th century AD and was the beginning of the larger military campaigns of the Chola Empire under Raja...
, in another the war against the Pandyas, Raja Raja Chola I seized the Pandya king Amarabhujanga and a Chola general also defeated the Ay king and captured their capital, Vizhinjam
Vizhinjam
Vizhinjam is a locality of Thiruvananthapuram city in the Indian state of Kerala. Kovalam beach is just 3 km from Vizhinjam. The areas in and around Vizhinjam are known for its Ayurvedic treatment centers and internationally acclaimed beach resorts. As of 2001, the population was 18,566...
. To commemorate these conquests Raja Raja Chola I assumed the title Mummudichola, ("the Chola king who wears three crowns - the Chera, Chola and Pandya"). After his capture of Aye kingdom, Raja Raja Chola I re-named a village called Muttam in Valluvanad (one of the provinces of the Ay kingdom, the other being Nanjinad) into Mummudicholanallur a subdivision of Rajarja Tennadu, or the Ay kingdom under Raja Raja Chola.
Jewish Copper Plate
The Jewish Copper Plate
Jewish Copper Plate
Jewish Copper Plate was a copper plate grant given to Jews by Kulasekhara king Bhaskara Ravi Varman I , immortalizing himself in Kerala history...
was conferred on a "Jewish Chief Joseph Rabban
Joseph Rabban
Joseph Rabban was a Jewish merchant, possibly from Yemen, who came to the Malabar Coast in the mid eighth century. According to the traditions of the Cochin Jews, Joseph was granted the rank of prince over the Jews of Cochin by the Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravivarman II.He was granted the rulership...
, the rights of the Anjuvannam
Anjuvannam
Anjuvannam or Anjuvannan refers to the community of Cochin Jews.The name derives from the traditional Hindu system of castes where any person not belonging to one of the four principal castes used to be referred to as an anjuvannan...
and 72 other properietary rights." by Bhaskara Ravi Varman I.
No doubt the grant was a token of the high sense of religions toleration granted in the Kulasekhara kingdom. However, Jewish Copper Plate may also be deemed as a diplomatic move to win the Jew population over to the Kulasekhara side, in view of the implending Chola aggression under Raja Raja Chola I.
Under the Cholas
In 1003 AD, to a temple in the Ay kingdom at Tirunandikkarai Raja Raja Chola I donated grants and ordered in the month of Iyppasi (October/November) a festival to be celebrated ending on the day of Chataya star (his birth star), on which day the image of the deity atthe temple of Tirunandiikkarai was to be bathed in the river and a perpetual lamp called Rajarajan to be lit every day.
Kulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
hints at a slight on the Chola ambassador to the Kulasekhara court as the reason for this sacking of Udagai. The Chola king sent an ambassador to Bhaskara Ravi Varman II, the co-regent of the king Bhaskara Ravi Varman I in Udagai, requesting him to submit to Chola suzerainty and to pay tributes. But, the Chola ambassador was humiliated by Bhaskara Ravi Varman II and was put into prison at Udagai, which enraged the Chola king and he sent a large expedition to Udagai. The Chola army destroyed and the city was captured Kongunad from the Cheras. Raja Raja Chola I's son Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
was the Chola general leading the army in this battle. A place named Udagai is mentioned in connection with the conquest of the Pandyas. The Kalingattuparani refers to the storming of Udagai in the verse, which alludes to the reign of Raja Raja Chola I. The Kulottungasoranula also mentions the burning of Udagai. Udagai may be an important stronghold in the Pandya country, which the Chola king captured. The Tamil poem Vikkiramacholanula mentions the conquest of Malainadu and the killing of 18 princes in retaliation of the insult offered to an envoy.
The Chola forces further marched to the present day Northern and Central Kerala (Kudamalainadu) and defeated Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, and captured Mahodayapuram. Now, Bhaskara Ravi Varman I accepted the Chola suzerainty and continued to rule from Mahodayapuram paying tributes. This brought all the territories of Chera country ruled by the other chieftans too to accept the Chola supremacy. Cholas moved further into the south of the Kulasekhara kingdom, Venad territory (Kolladesam) and captured Venad along with its capital Kollam, which were at this time ruled by a chieftain called Govardhana
Marthandan appointed by the Kulasekhara king. The Kulasekhara dynasty went into a temporary decline after this defeats, although the remnants of the Kulasekhara continued to cause trouble for their Chola overlords. By the end of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I's vassal reign the whole of south Travancore to the south of Kuzhithura came under the Chola domination. Raja also seized Pandya Amara Bhujanga and captured the port of Vizhinjam (and Kandalur Salai) over which there were repeated struggles between the Kulasekharas and the Cholas.
In 1019 AD, During the period of Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
, Bhaskara Ravi Varman I made some agitations of freedom from the Cholas. Soon, Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
a war expedition under the leadership of his second son Manukulakesari to Kudamalainadu. Manukulakesari killed the Kulasekhara king, captured Mahodayapuram and secured a diadem and an island called Santhimathivu belonging to Cheras in Arabic sea. This was the final route of the Kulasekharas. On the death of Bhaskara Ravi Varman I, Bhaskara Ravi Varman II unofficially ascended the throne, but ruled only for a short while (1019-21 CE). With the end of the Chera civil war, Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
assumed a new title as Mudikonda Cholan and gave the title "Cholakeralan" to his second son Manukulakesari and appointed him as the Chola viceroy to rule the captured Kudamalainadu.
However with the necessaity of Manukulakesari having to lead a war expedition with Eastern Chalukyas, he was recalled back from Chera country in the year 1021 AD, appointing the Chera prince Vira Cherala (1021-28 CE), son of Baskara Ravi Varman, to rule on accepting the Chola suzerainty. Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I
Rajendra Chola I was the son of Rajaraja Chola I and was one of the greatest rulers of Tamil Chola dynasty of India. He succeeded his father in 1014 CE as the Chola emperor...
married Panchavanmathevi, daughter of the Chera king Paluvettariyar. But, within seven years, Vira Cherala, allied with the Venad rulers rebelled against the Cholas under Rajadhiraja Chola
Rajadhiraja Chola
Kōpparakēsarivarman Rājādhiraja Chōla I was one of the greatest emperors of the Chola empire succeeding his father in the 11th century. During his long reign, he helped his father conquer many territories and maintained the Chola authority over most of Lanka, Vengi, Kalinga, etc. and the relations...
. Soon, the Chola king sent forces to Mahodayapuram and defeated Vira Kerala and was put to death by his royal elephant Atthivaranam. The Chola aggressions continued and with the death of Vira Cherala in 1028 AD, the Kulasekhara power eclipsed. Rajadhiraja Chola
Rajadhiraja Chola
Kōpparakēsarivarman Rājādhiraja Chōla I was one of the greatest emperors of the Chola empire succeeding his father in the 11th century. During his long reign, he helped his father conquer many territories and maintained the Chola authority over most of Lanka, Vengi, Kalinga, etc. and the relations...
now appointed Raja Simha (1028-43 CE), the son of Vira Kerala, as a vassal and had friendly relations with the Cholas for some time. However with fluctuating fortunes, the Kulasekharas continued under Raja Simha (1028-43 CE). His reign is known for his Mannarkoil inscription, which acknowledged the supremacy of the Cholas. Madeviyar Adicchi was Vira Kerala's queen. In the meantime, Venad rulers continued their unsuccessful rebellions.
Govardhana Marthanda, the new ruler of Venad, started rebellions assisted by Ramakuta Muvar. Ramakuta Muvar was the ruler Koovaham in present day Kerala. Rajadhiraja Chola
Rajadhiraja Chola
Kōpparakēsarivarman Rājādhiraja Chōla I was one of the greatest emperors of the Chola empire succeeding his father in the 11th century. During his long reign, he helped his father conquer many territories and maintained the Chola authority over most of Lanka, Vengi, Kalinga, etc. and the relations...
easily defeated the rebels in Venad, and both Govardhana Marthanda and Ramakuta Muvar escaped to forest hideouts, and the Chola army the military academy and arms centre that became active again at Kanthalur Salai and attacked and defeated Vizhinjam which revived its efforts under Ay kings to become independent, and was renamed as Rajendracholapattanam. So, finally Venad ruler accepted the Chola domination, and continued as a vassal paying tributes.
However, by the time of Bhaskara Ravi Varman III (1043-1082 CE) Kerala was totally liberated from the Chola yoke. In 1063 AD, Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola was one of the most under-rated Chola kings, mainly because a major part of his life was spent in the apprenticeship of his two elder brothers Rajadhirajan Chola I and Rajendra Chola-II, who along with Virarajendra Chola himself were the illustrious sons of their Chakravarti...
became the Chola ruler. Making the most of it, Cheras and Venad rulers started rebellions, so the new king sent an expedition to Venad and killed Jananathan, the younger brother of Venad ruler. Venad ruler himself fled from the kingdom. Later with the agitation also from Bhaskara Ravi Varman III necessiated Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola was one of the most under-rated Chola kings, mainly because a major part of his life was spent in the apprenticeship of his two elder brothers Rajadhirajan Chola I and Rajendra Chola-II, who along with Virarajendra Chola himself were the illustrious sons of their Chakravarti...
to go on a renewed war expedition, with a large elephant cavalry, towards the important cities of the Cheras like Mahodayapuram and Udagai. Bhaskara Ravi Varman III in fear escaped with his family to safety. Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola was one of the most under-rated Chola kings, mainly because a major part of his life was spent in the apprenticeship of his two elder brothers Rajadhirajan Chola I and Rajendra Chola-II, who along with Virarajendra Chola himself were the illustrious sons of their Chakravarti...
successfully returned back with much tributes, elephants and maids.
In 1070 AD, the first of the Later Cholas, Kulothunga Chola I
Kulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
ascended to the thrown of an empire in crisis and civil war. Taking opportunity of the political turmoil in the Chola kingdom, the rulers of Ay kingdom, Venad and Mahodayapuram (Kudamalainadu, present day Malabar) rebelled against the capital. Within 11 years of his coronation, in 1081 AD, Kulothunga Chola I
Kulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
waged war with the Cheras. He re-captured Kanthalur Salai, Vizhinjam, and the entire Ay kingdom to the Cape Comorin. Soon, Bhaskara Ravi Varman III agreed the domination. But, this time the Chola ruler stationed his forces (nilappada) at Kottar in south Kerala under Commander Arayan Madhuranthakan or Chola Keralarachan. Then the Chola forces moved further north to Mahodayapuram and faced with the Nair suicidal squads of Bhaskara Ravi Varman III. But, the superior Chola forces successfully defeated the Cheras, and killed Bhaskara Ravi Varman III in 1082 AD. Ravi Rama Varman (1082-90 CE) followed Bhaskara Ravi Varman III with his acceptance to pay tribute to Cholas.
Rama Varman Kulashekhara
Rama Varman Kulashekhara (1090–1102) was the last of the Kulasekhara kings based on Mahodayapuram. He ascended the throne during a period of severe crisis. The powerful Chola ruler Kulothunga Chola IKulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
had occupied Nanjanad and south Kerala and was proceeding towards Kollam, the capital of the Venad rulers (one of the Rama Varman Kulashekhara's former vassal) in 1090s and by 1095 CE, Kulothunga Chola had destroyed Kollam and towards the end of these wars the Cholas conquered as far as central Kerala.
The capital city of Mahodayapuram (present Kodungallur) and surrounding places were devastated, looted ad burned down in the long war and Rama Varman Kulashekhara, without even a palace of his own, is known to have stayed at alternative frugal accommodations.
As soon as the war with the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI
Vikramaditya VI became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Somesvara II. Vikramaditya's reign is marked by the start of the Chalukya-Vikrama era. Vikramaditya VI was the greatest of the Western Chalukya kings and had the longest reign in the dynasty. He earned the title...
ended, Kulothunga Chola I
Kulothunga Chola I
Kō Rājakēsarivarman Abaya Kulōthunga Chōla was one of the greatest kings of the Chola Empire. He was one of the sovereigns who bore the title Kulottunga, literally meaning the exalter of his race.-Early life:...
turned all his energy to the suppression of the revolts in the Pandya and the Kulasekhara territories. The record at the innermost prakaram
Prakaram
A Prakaram, also spelled Pragaram or Pragaaram) in Indian architecture is an outer parth around the Hindu temple sanctum. These may be enclosed or open and are typically enclosed for the inner most prakaram....
(closed precincts of a temple) of ancient Chidambaram Temple
Chidambaram Temple
Thillai Natarajah Temple, Chidambaram is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in the town of Chidambaram, East-Central Tamil Nadu, South India. The temple is known as the foremost of all temples to Saivites and has influenced worship, architecture, sculpture and performance art for over two...
says that King Kulothungan vanquished the extremely dense army of Cheras and Pandyas and also burnt down the Korkai (Tirunelveli) fort, the same way as son of Pandu (Arjuna) burnt Khandava forest.
Cholapuram
Cholapuram is a panchayat town in Thanjavur district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India.-Geography:Cholapuram is located at . It has an average elevation of 123 metres .-Demographics:...
records (around 1100 CE) that record the achievements of Kulothunga Chola I refer to this. The Cholas could not regain their influence beyond Nanjanad after this defeat.
Kulothunga Chola I did not take any serious attempt to regain the lost territories of the Cheras. It appears this was the ending point of War of Hundred Years between the Cholas and the Cheras. But this did not last long. The reign of the last Perumal, Ramakula Sekhara Perumal, was disturbed by internecine quarrels which led to his abdication and possible conversion.
The later life of Rama Varman Kulashekhara as the Kulasekhara king of Venad is shrouded in mystery. The local legends tell of the mysterious disappearance and conversion to Islam of Rama Varma Kulashekhara which, however, is neither corroborated by any contemporary record nor was mentioned by any of the several Arab and European travellers who visited Kerala including during that period. This event has been referred to as the partition of Kerala.
But, the Cheraman Juma Masjid
Cheraman Juma Masjid
Cheraman Juma Masjid is a mosque in Methala, Kodungallur Taluk in the Indian state of Kerala. The Cheraman Masjid is said to be the very first mosque in India, built in 629 AD by Malik lbn Dinar. But, according to Nathan Katz, the accuracy of these claims is uncertain. It is believed that this...
at Kodungallur, purportedly built or modified on the instruction of the Rama Varman Kulashekhara exhibits the style of middle Chola architecture and a team of historians who studied its foundation safely placed it in the 12th century. However, the end of Rama Varma Kulashekhara signaled the end of the dynasty from the ruins of which arose the state of Venad.
List of Kulasekhara kings (Cheraman Perumals)
- Kulashekhara Varman (800–820 AD)
- Rajashekhara Varman (820–844 AD)
- Sthanu Ravi Varman (844–885 AD)
- Rama Varman (885–917 AD)
- Kotha Ravi Varma (917–944 AD)
- Indu Kotha Varma (944–962 AD)
- Bhaskara Ravi Varman I (962–1019 AD)
- Bhaskara Ravi Varman II (1019–1021 AD)
- Vira Kerala (1021–1028 AD)
- Rajasimha (1028–1043 AD)
- Bhaskara Ravi Varman III (1043–1082 AD)
- Ravi Rama Varman (1082–1090 AD)
- Rama Varman Kulashekhara (1090–1102 AD)
Copper plates (Cheppeds)
Kulasekhara rulers gave a number of Copper Plates Grants to particular communities in their multicultural society. Like the Jewish Copper PlateJewish Copper Plate
Jewish Copper Plate was a copper plate grant given to Jews by Kulasekhara king Bhaskara Ravi Varman I , immortalizing himself in Kerala history...
to Jews and Vazhapalli plates
Vazhapalli plates
Vazhapalli plates or Vazhapalli sasanangal are a set of copper-plate grants that were issued by Kulasekhara Mahodayapuram King Rajasekhara Varman ....
the Kulasekhara rulers gave three Copper plate to the indigenous Christians called Nasranis. They gave the Nasranis various rights and privileges which were written on copper plates Five sheets of them are now in the custody of St. Thomas Christians. That include,
- Tharissa palli Deed I (Tharisapalli platesTharisapalli platesTharisapalli plates or Tarsishapalli sasanangal are a set of copper-plate grants that were given to the Assyrian Monk Marwan Sr Easho or Iso by Venad ruler Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal in 849 AD...
): Perumal Sthanu Ravi Gupta (844-885) gave a deed in 849 AD, to Isodatta Virai for Tharissa Palli (church) at Curakkeni Kollam. According to historians, this is the first deed in Kerala that gives the exact date. - Tharissa palli Deed II: Continuation of the above, given after 849 AD.
- Iravi Corttan Deed: In the year 1225 AD. Sri Vira Raghava Chakravarti, gave a deed to Iravi Corttan (Eravi Karthan) of Mahadevarpattanam in 774. Two BrahminBrahminBrahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
families are witness to this deed showing that Brahmins were in Kerala by the 8th century.
The languages used are old Tamil letters with some Grantha letters intermingled, Pahlavi, Kufic
Kufic
Kufic is the oldest calligraphic form of the various Arabic scripts and consists of a modified form of the old Nabataean script. Its name is derived from the city of Kufa, Iraq, although it was known in Mesopotamia at least 100 years before the foundation of Kufa. At the time of the emergence of...
and Hebrew.
These plates detail privileges awarded to the community by the then rulers. These influenced the development of the social structure in Kerala and privileges, rules for the communities. These are considered as one of the most important legal documents in the history of Kerala.
Provinces
The provinces were called Nads. They were Venad, Odanad, Nanthuzhinad, Munjunad, Vempolinad, Kizhumalainad, Kalkarainad, Nedumpurayurnad, Valluvanad, Eralnad, Polanad, Kurumbranad, Kolathunad and Puraikizhanad. In these, Kolathunad, Venad, Perumpadappu and Eralnad were more powerful than the others. The northernmost province of Kolathunad called Ezhimalai kingdom was almost independent and was brought under Kulasekhara sovereignty by force towards the end of the 9th century. Venad, the southernmost district, was carved out of the ancient territory of the Ay Kingdom. A new harbour city, named Kollam, was established here in AD 825. In the course of time, it became the second capital of the Kulasekharas.In Konganpada attacks (at the end of the 9th century or in the first years of 10th century) between Kongu king and Nedumpurayoor (Palakkad Raja) nairs. Kongu army,led by the Chola King Aditya I or Parantaka Chola I, was defeated by combined armies of Nedumpurayoor, Valluvanad, Ernad and Perumpadappu. In honour the valluvanad Raja received Kurissi Vilayan Chathanur and Kaithala villages from Nedumpurayoor. This event is even now celebrated as a historical event in Chittur taluk where the fight took place.
Administration
The Kulasekhara period falls into two phases. The 9th and 10th centuries constituted a better ages in history. The eleventh which followed was a period of stagnation and decline by the Chola attacks.The king called Cheraman Perumal was the head of the administration at the capital city Mahodayapuram protected by fortresses. Cheraman Perumals inherited throne by a patrilineal system.Tharisapalli plates
Tharisapalli plates
Tharisapalli plates or Tarsishapalli sasanangal are a set of copper-plate grants that were given to the Assyrian Monk Marwan Sr Easho or Iso by Venad ruler Ayyanadikal Thiruvadikal in 849 AD...
issued by King Iyyanadikal Thiruvadikal in 849 AD mentions Theeyamalzhwar(Police officers) Channathalai(Administrative officers) Vellalas and Ezhavas but never mentioned Nairs or Namboothiris. The claim that sovereignty was constrained by the pre-existing power of the Brahmin settlements and the hereditary Nair chieftains has no basis as they are not Tamils but of Tulunadus Bunt (community)
Bunt (community)
Bunt , previously spelled Bant, are a community of erstwhile nobility, feudatory and gentry from the region of Tulu Nadu in the south west of India which comprises the districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada in the Indian state of Karnataka and Kasaragod taluk of Kerala...
.The Various subcastes of Bunt (community)
Bunt (community)
Bunt , previously spelled Bant, are a community of erstwhile nobility, feudatory and gentry from the region of Tulu Nadu in the south west of India which comprises the districts of Udupi and Dakshina Kannada in the Indian state of Karnataka and Kasaragod taluk of Kerala...
such as Nayara Menava Kuruba and Samantha estabilished Matriarchal dynasties in Kerala only after 1310 when Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur, General , or Chand Ram as his name was originally, was a slave who became a head general in the army of Alauddin Khilji, ruler of the Delhi sultanate from 1296 to 1316 AD. He was originally seized by Alauddin's army after the army conquered the city of Khambhat...
invaded Kerala. The first ever mention of Nairs is at Thrikodithanam mentions a Chennan Nair who was a Drummer migrated from Tulunadu. Each Nadu or province had its own hereditary or nominated governor.The Kulasekhara kingdom was a Tamil kingdom ruled by various Tamil tribes such as Villavar, Malayar,Vanavaretc. So, the administration of the provinces were invested on powerful Nair feudatory chiefs, who were controlled by Koyiladhikarikal and the local assemblies called Munnuttuvar, Anhuttuvar etc. Each nadu in turn was divided into desams governed by Desavazhis, who were controlled by Kuttams, popular bodies. The lowest unit was the kara which was governed by a panchayat. The executive officers were called Adhikaris, the Commander-in-chief was called Patanayakan, the 2nd in command was called Kizh-patanayakan, the Treasury Officer was the Bhandaramkappan. Elaborate arrangements were made for the management of temples. The general control of the administration of temples was invested in the Koyiladhikarikal. A committee called Sablia was charged with the responsibility of the administration of each temple, though for day-to-day work, the committee appointed a secretary called Potuval. Law and order was maintained and a penal code was comprehensive. Common forms of punishment were fines and imprisonment. A variety of taxes, such as Patavaram (land tax), Talaikanam (professional tax), Polippon (sales tax), Kundanazhi (tax on toddy), and Mulaivila (tax on women labours) were levied from the people. The Kulasekharas had a well equipped Tamil army of Villavars with Nair army and esp. naval forces.
Descendants and legacy
In the absence of a central power, the divisions of the Later Chera kingdom soon emerged as principalities under separate Namboothiri BrahmanBrahman
In Hinduism, Brahman is the one supreme, universal Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe. Brahman is sometimes referred to as the Absolute or Godhead which is the Divine Ground of all being...
or Nair
Nair
Nair , also known as Nayar , refers to "not a unitary group but a named category of castes", which historically embody several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom bore the Nair title. These people historically live in the present-day Indian state of Kerala...
feudal chieftains. Most of these Nair matriarchal city state rulers claim their descent from the Kulasekharas. The dynasty of Venad
Venad
Venad Swarupam was one of the three prominent late medieval Hindu feudal kingdoms on Malabar Coast, south India, along with Kingdom of Calicut and Kingdom of Cannanore. In the early 14th century, Venad ruler Ravi Varma Kulasekhara had established a short-lived supremacy over southern India...
(hence Travancore
Travancore
Kingdom of Travancore was a former Hindu feudal kingdom and Indian Princely State with its capital at Padmanabhapuram or Trivandrum ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. The Kingdom of Travancore comprised most of modern day southern Kerala, Kanyakumari district, and the southernmost parts of...
) is generally regarded by some as their direct descendants since the last king of the Kulasekharas was the first king of an independent Venad. But from them, Kolathiri, Samoothiri, and Kulasekhara Venattadi
Venad
Venad Swarupam was one of the three prominent late medieval Hindu feudal kingdoms on Malabar Coast, south India, along with Kingdom of Calicut and Kingdom of Cannanore. In the early 14th century, Venad ruler Ravi Varma Kulasekhara had established a short-lived supremacy over southern India...
emerged successful. The Saamoothiris were the only rulers who were capable of and came close to establishing a pan-Kerala state since the disintegration of the Kulasekharas.
In popular culture
The progressive psychedelicPsychedelic
The term psychedelic is derived from the Greek words ψυχή and δηλοῦν , translating to "soul-manifesting". A psychedelic experience is characterized by the striking perception of aspects of one's mind previously unknown, or by the creative exuberance of the mind liberated from its ostensibly...
band Kula Shaker
Kula Shaker
Kula Shaker are an English psychedelic rock band. Led by outspoken frontman Crispian Mills, the band came to prominence during the Post-Britpop era of the late 1990s. The band enjoyed great commercial success in the UK between 1996 and 1999, notching up a number of Top 10 hits on the UK Singles...
take their name from this Dynasty, borrowing the name in a modified version from Kulasekhara das, the first initiated European disciple of His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Kulasekhara das released his own music CD in 2008 on iTunes under the name 'Kula'.