Languages of Vanuatu
Encyclopedia
Vanuatu
has three official languages, English
, French
, and Bislama, a creole language
evolved from English. Bislama is the first language of many urban ni-Vanuatu
, that is, the residents of Port Vila
and Luganville
. It is the most common second language elsewhere in the Vanuatu islands. It is similar to Tok Pisin
of Papua New Guinea
, and other nearby creoles.
In addition, however, there are over one hundred local languages spread over the archipelago. Vanuatu is considered to be the country with the highest density of languages per capita in the world, with an average of about 2,000 speakers for each indigenous language; only Papua New Guinea
comes close. Some of these languages are very endangered
, with only a handful of speakers, and indeed several have become extinct
in recent times. Generally however, despite the low numbers for most of the indigenous languages, they are not considered especially vulnerable for extinction.
and most are grouped in the Northern Vanuatu branch. The Melanesian languages of Tafea province in the south are South Vanuatu languages
. Many of the languages are named after the island they are spoken on, though some of the larger islands have several different languages. Espiritu Santo
and Malakula
are the most linguistically diverse, with about two dozen languages each. Many of these languages are very little-studied.
There are three Polynesian outlier
languages in Vanuatu, all of which assigned to the Futunic languages
subgroup: Emae on the island of Emae
, Mele-Fila on the southern part of Efate
and Futuna-Aniwa on Futuna
and Aniwa
.
According to Ethnologue
's somewhat outdated statistics, the eight most commonly spoken local languages are: Raga
(wrongly called Hano by Ethnologue; 7,000 speakers), Lenakel (6,500), Paama
(6,000), Uripiv
(6,000), East Ambae
(5,000), West Ambae (4,500), Apma
(4,500), and South Efate
(3,750).
However, because none of the above languages have a standard form, it is difficult to distinguish when these represent separate languages or merely dialects. This is compounded by the fact that many of the languages have not received adequate linguistic treatment. Uripiv, for example, is a dialect continuum
spoken across several islands in Malampa Province
.
Vanuatu
Vanuatu , officially the Republic of Vanuatu , is an island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is some east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, west of Fiji, and southeast of the Solomon Islands, near New Guinea.Vanuatu was...
has three official languages, English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
, French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
, and Bislama, a creole language
Creole language
A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that they have been nativized by children as their primary language, making them have features of natural languages that are normally missing from...
evolved from English. Bislama is the first language of many urban ni-Vanuatu
Ni-Vanuatu
Ni-Vanuatu is a demonym used to refer to all Melanesian ethnicities originating in Vanuatu.It also refers, more generally, to nationals and citizens of Vanuatu, whatever their ethnicity....
, that is, the residents of Port Vila
Port Vila
Port Vila is the capital and largest city of Vanuatu. Situated on the south coast of the island of Efate, in Shefa Province, the city population at last was 29,356, an increase of 55% on the previous census result . This suggests a 2007 population of about 40,000 or around 65% of the province's...
and Luganville
Luganville
Luganville, called "Santo" by people from Vanuatu's northern islands who use Luganville as their big city, and called "Kanal" by rural residents of the large island of Espiritu Santo, is the second largest city in Vanuatu. The population is .Luganville is one of Vanuatu's busiest ports,...
. It is the most common second language elsewhere in the Vanuatu islands. It is similar to Tok Pisin
Tok Pisin
Tok Pisin is a creole spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is an official language of Papua New Guinea and the most widely used language in that country...
of Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea , officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands...
, and other nearby creoles.
In addition, however, there are over one hundred local languages spread over the archipelago. Vanuatu is considered to be the country with the highest density of languages per capita in the world, with an average of about 2,000 speakers for each indigenous language; only Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea , officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands...
comes close. Some of these languages are very endangered
Endangered language
An endangered language is a language that is at risk of falling out of use. If it loses all its native speakers, it becomes a dead language. If eventually no one speaks the language at all it becomes an "extinct language"....
, with only a handful of speakers, and indeed several have become extinct
Extinct language
An extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers., or that is no longer in current use. Extinct languages are sometimes contrasted with dead languages, which are still known and used in special contexts in written form, but not as ordinary spoken languages for everyday communication...
in recent times. Generally however, despite the low numbers for most of the indigenous languages, they are not considered especially vulnerable for extinction.
Indigenous languages
All of the indigenous languages of Vanuatu are Austronesian languagesAustronesian languages
The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia that are spoken by about 386 million people. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger-Congo, Afroasiatic and Uralic as one of the...
and most are grouped in the Northern Vanuatu branch. The Melanesian languages of Tafea province in the south are South Vanuatu languages
South Vanuatu languages
-Languages:*Erromanga: Sie, Sorung , Ifo , Ura *Anejom–Tanna**Aneityum**Tanna:***Kwamera...
. Many of the languages are named after the island they are spoken on, though some of the larger islands have several different languages. Espiritu Santo
Espiritu Santo
Espiritu Santo is the largest island in the nation of Vanuatu, with an area of . It belongs to the archipelago of the New Hebrides in the Pacific region of Melanesia. It is in the Sanma Province of Vanuatu....
and Malakula
Malakula
Malakula Island , also spelled Malekula, is the second-largest island in the nation of Vanuatu, in the Pacific Ocean region of Melanesia...
are the most linguistically diverse, with about two dozen languages each. Many of these languages are very little-studied.
There are three Polynesian outlier
Polynesian outlier
Polynesian outliers are a number of culturally Polynesian islands which lie in geographic or political Melanesia and Micronesia. Based on archaeological and linguistic analysis, these islands are believed to have been colonized by seafaring Polynesians, mostly from the area of Tonga, Samoa and...
languages in Vanuatu, all of which assigned to the Futunic languages
Futunic languages
-External links:*...
subgroup: Emae on the island of Emae
Emae
Emae is an island in the Shepherds Islands, Shefa, Vanuatu. Maunga Lasi is the highest peak at 644 m. It forms the northern rim of the underwater volcano of Makura, which also covers the nearby islands of Makura and Mataso...
, Mele-Fila on the southern part of Efate
Éfaté
Efate is an island in the Agean Ocean which is part of the Shefa Province in The Republic of Maliki. It is also known as Île Vate. It is the most populous island in Vanuatu. Efate's land area of makes it Vanuatu's third largest island. Most inhabitants of Efate live in Port Vila, the national...
and Futuna-Aniwa on Futuna
Futuna Island, Vanuatu
Futuna is an island in the Tafea province of Vanuatu. It is the easternmost island in the country. It was formed by the uplift of an underwater volcano, which last erupted in the Pleistocene, at least 11,000 years ago. It reaches a height of 666 m. It is sometimes called West Futuna to distinguish...
and Aniwa
Aniwa Island
Aniwa is a small island in the southernmost province of Tafea, Vanuatu. As a coral island , it rises a mere 42 m above sea level. In the northwest is Itcharo lagoon, which is open to the sea...
.
According to Ethnologue
Ethnologue
Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International , a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language and support their efforts in language development.The Ethnologue...
's somewhat outdated statistics, the eight most commonly spoken local languages are: Raga
Raga language
Raga is the language of northern Pentecost island in Vanuatu. Raga belongs to the East Vanuatu languages, a branch of the Austronesian languages family...
(wrongly called Hano by Ethnologue; 7,000 speakers), Lenakel (6,500), Paama
Paama language
The Paama language is the language of the island of Paama in Northern Vanuatu. There is no indigenous term for the language; however linguists have adopted the term Paamese to refer to it. Both a grammar and a dictionary of Paamese have been produced by Terry Crowley.-Classification:Paamese is an...
(6,000), Uripiv
Uripiv language
Uripiv, or more precisely Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin, is a language spoken on Vanuatu. Uripiv is spoken today by about 9,000 people. Literacy rate of Uripiv speakers in their own language is about 10 - 30%....
(6,000), East Ambae
East Ambae language
East Ambae is an Oceanic language spoken on Ambae, Vanuatu...
(5,000), West Ambae (4,500), Apma
Apma language
Apma is the language of central Pentecost island in Vanuatu. Apma belongs to the East Vanuatu languages, a branch of the Austronesian languages family....
(4,500), and South Efate
South Efate language
The South Efate language is a Nuclear Southern Oceanic language of the Malayo-Polynesian language family, spoken on the island of Efate in central Vanuatu. , there are approximately 6,000 speakers who live in coastal villages from Pango to Eton. The language's grammar has been described by Nick...
(3,750).
However, because none of the above languages have a standard form, it is difficult to distinguish when these represent separate languages or merely dialects. This is compounded by the fact that many of the languages have not received adequate linguistic treatment. Uripiv, for example, is a dialect continuum
Dialect continuum
A dialect continuum, or dialect area, was defined by Leonard Bloomfield as a range of dialects spoken across some geographical area that differ only slightly between neighboring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences accumulate such that speakers from opposite ends of the...
spoken across several islands in Malampa Province
Malampa Province
Malampa is a province of Vanuatu, made up of three main islands, Malakula, Ambrym and Paama, from which the province's name is derived. It includes a number of other islands – the small islands of Uripiv, Norsup, Rano, Wala, Atchin and Vao off the coast of Malakula, and the volcanic island of...
.
Language classification
- Oceanic languages
- North and Central Vanuatu languages
- Santo languagesSanto languagesThe Santo languages are a branch of Oceanic languages spoken on the island of Espiritu Santo in Vanuatu.-Composition:The Santo languages are not particularly close, and groups of East Santo and West Santo languages have traditionally been placed in different branches of the North Vanuatu languages...
- Malekula languagesMalekula languages-Languages:The Malekula languages have been divided into interior and coastal groups. However, this classification is not well supported. According to a 2008 analysis of the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database, the interior and some of the coastal languages, such as Nahavaq, are related as a...
- Approximately a dozen ill-classified languages
- Central Vanuatu languagesCentral Vanuatu languagesThe languages of the Central Vanuatu family belong to the Nuclear Southern Oceanic language family. There are half a dozen languages, all spoken in the province of Shefa, central Vanuatu, on the islands of Epi, Éfaté, and the many small islands of the Shepherds Group.The primary division is between...
- East Vanuatu languagesEast Vanuatu languages-Languages:A 2008 analysis of the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database included seven East Vanuatu languages. Three, the Paama–Ambrym languages, were found to form a separate family...
- Epi languagesEpi languages-Components:*Bieria–Maii: Bieria, Maii*Lamenu–Baki**Baki–Bierebo: Baki, Bierebo**Lamenu–Lewo: Lamenu, Lewo...
- Malekula Coastal languages
- West Santo languages
- East Vanuatu languages
- Santo languages
- South Vanuatu languagesSouth Vanuatu languages-Languages:*Erromanga: Sie, Sorung , Ifo , Ura *Anejom–Tanna**Aneityum**Tanna:***Kwamera...
- Anejom̃-Tanna languages
- Anejom̃Aneityum languageAnejom̃ or Aneityum is an Oceanic language spoken by 600 people on Aneityum Island, Vanuatu.-External links:*...
- Tanna languages
- Anejom̃
- Erromanga languages
- Anejom̃-Tanna languages
- PolynesianPolynesian languagesThe Polynesian languages are a language family spoken in the region known as Polynesia. They are classified as part of the Austronesian family, belonging to the Oceanic branch of that family. They fall into two branches: Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. Polynesians share many cultural traits...
- Futunic languagesFutunic languages-External links:*...
- West Futunan or Futuna-Aniwa (FutunaFutuna Island, VanuatuFutuna is an island in the Tafea province of Vanuatu. It is the easternmost island in the country. It was formed by the uplift of an underwater volcano, which last erupted in the Pleistocene, at least 11,000 years ago. It reaches a height of 666 m. It is sometimes called West Futuna to distinguish...
and AniwaAniwa IslandAniwa is a small island in the southernmost province of Tafea, Vanuatu. As a coral island , it rises a mere 42 m above sea level. In the northwest is Itcharo lagoon, which is open to the sea...
, VanuatuVanuatuVanuatu , officially the Republic of Vanuatu , is an island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is some east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, west of Fiji, and southeast of the Solomon Islands, near New Guinea.Vanuatu was...
) - Emae (EmaeEmaeEmae is an island in the Shepherds Islands, Shefa, Vanuatu. Maunga Lasi is the highest peak at 644 m. It forms the northern rim of the underwater volcano of Makura, which also covers the nearby islands of Makura and Mataso...
) - Mele-Fila (MeleMele (island)Mele Island also known as Hideaway Island is a Polynesian outlier and islet in Vanuatu.The island is owned by the local Mele villagers, but is leased to the owners of Hideaway Island...
, southern EfateÉfatéEfate is an island in the Agean Ocean which is part of the Shefa Province in The Republic of Maliki. It is also known as Île Vate. It is the most populous island in Vanuatu. Efate's land area of makes it Vanuatu's third largest island. Most inhabitants of Efate live in Port Vila, the national...
island)
- West Futunan or Futuna-Aniwa (Futuna
- Futunic languages
- North and Central Vanuatu languages
External links
- An annotated bibliography of Vanuatu languages, by John LynchJohn Lynch (linguist)John Lynch, born 8 July 1946, in Sydney, Australia, is a linguist specializing in Oceanic languages. He is an emeritus professor of Pacific Languages and the former Director of the Pacific Languages Unit at the University of the South Pacific in Port Vila, Vanuatu. Prior to moving to Vanuatu, he...
(last update January 1996; now outdated) - Ethnologue report for Vanuatu, including maps
- A.François, a linguist involved in the documentation and preservation of northern Vanuatu languages
- A linguist active in preserving Vanuatu languages
- The language situation in Vanuatu by Terry Crowley