Logic model
Encyclopedia
A logic model sets out how an intervention (such as a project, a program, or a policy) is understood or intended to produce particular results.
Some versions of a logic model present it as four components in a linear sequence: inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes. These represent the logical flow from:
This is displayed in a diagram such as this:
INPUTS --> ACTIVITIES OR PROCESSES --> OUTPUTS --> OUTCOMES
Other versions of a logic model set out a series of intermediate outcomes or results, explaining in more detail the logic of how an intervention contributes to intended or observed results. Some logic models also include assumptions, which are beliefs the prospective grantees have about the program, the people involved, and the context and the way the prospective grantees think the program will work, and external factors, consisting of the environment in which the program exists, including a variety of external factors that interact with and influence the program action.
The difference between these two approaches can be illustrated through the example of teacher home visits in Weiss' 1972 evaluation book.
This intervention can be described in terms of its inputs (teacher time, information about students' residencences, transport), processes (setting up appointments, visiting, talking with parents, writing up notes), outputs, and outcomes (improved learning by students). However this does not explain how the home visits work.
A more detailed logic model would show it is understood that home visits work - such as through improving teachers' understanding of the home conditions of their students, by establishing a co-operative relationship between teachers and parents, by encouraging the child, or through some other means. These different 'theories of change' have implications for how such visits should be designed, implemented, and evaluated; however, they are invisible in overly simple logic models.
Logic models can be drawn with the causal and temporal sequence running from left to right, from top to bottom, or from bottom to top.
can be drawn from any of the steps. One of the key insights of the logic model is the importance of measuring final outcome
s or results, because it is quite possible to waste time and money (inputs), "spin the wheels" on work activities, or produce outputs without achieving desired outcomes. It is these outcomes (impacts, long-term results) that are the only justification for doing the work in the first place. For commercial organizations, outcomes relate to profit
. For not-for-profit
or governmental organizations, outcomes relate to successful achievement of mission or program goals.
One of the common challenges facing organizations is how to measure outcomes. Because outcomes are delayed in time and may be mixed with many other causes, it is often difficult to measure them, even though outcomes are the most important strategic measures. Therefore some managers insert a step called "intermediate outcomes" between outputs and outcomes. Intermediate outcome measures are leading or indirect indicators of end outcomes. Intermediate outcomes often have to do with customer satisfaction
, which explains why there has been an increase in the use of customer satisfaction surveys
in modern management. The advantage of customer survey
s is that they are relatively quick and easy to implement, and if properly designed they can give meaningful feedback
on customer perceptions, which are relevant to outcomes.
University Cooperative Extension Programs in the US have developed a more elaborate logic model, called the Program Action Logic Model, which includes six steps:
In front of Inputs, there is a description of a Situation and Priorities. These are the considerations that determine what Inputs will be needed.
The University of Wisconsin Extension offers a series of guidance documents on the use of logic models. There is also an extensive bibliography
of work on this program logic model.
, rather than just consider inputs (e.g. budgets, employees) or just the tasks that must be done. In the past, program logic has been justified by explaining the process from the perspective of an insider. Paul McCawley (no date) outlines how this process was approached:
While logic models have been used in this way successfully, Millar et al. (1999) has suggested that following the above sequence, from the inputs through to the outcomes, could limit one’s thinking to the existing activities, programs and research questions. Instead, by using the logic model to focus on the intended outcomes of a particular program the questions change from ‘what is being done?’ to’ what needs to be done?’ McCawley (no date) suggests that by using this new reasoning, a logic model for a program can be built by asking the following questions in sequence:
By placing the focus on ultimate outcomes or results, planner
s can think backwards through the logic model to identify how best to achieve the desired results. Planners therefore need to understand the difference between the categories of the logic model.
or not-for-profit organizations, where the mission and vision are not aimed at achieving a financial benefit. In such situations, where profit is not the intended result, it may be difficult to monitor progress toward outcomes. A program logic model provides such indicators, in terms of output and outcome measures of performance. It is therefore important in these organizations to carefully specify the desired results, and consider how to monitor them over time. Often, such as in education
or social programs, the outcomes are long-term and mission success is far in the future. In these cases, intermediate or shorter-term outcomes may be identified that provide an indication of progress toward the ultimate long-term outcome.
Traditionally, government programs were described only in terms of their budget
s. It is easy to measure the amount of money spent on a program, but this is a poor indicator of mission success. Likewise it is relatively easy to measure the amount of work done (e.g. number of workers or number of years spent), but the workers may have just been 'spinning their wheels' without getting very far in terms of ultimate results or outcomes. The production of outputs is a better indicator that something was delivered to customers, but it is still possible that the output did not really meet the customer's needs, was not used, etc. Therefore, the focus on results or outcomes has become a mantra
in government and not-for-profit programs.
The President's Management Agenda
is an example of the increasing emphasis on results in government management. It states:
However, although outcomes are used as the primary indicators of program success or failure they are still insufficient. Outcomes may easily be achieved through processes independent of the program and an evaluation of those outcomes would suggest program success when in fact external outputs were responsible for the outcomes (Rossi, Lipsey and Freeman, 2004). In this respect, Rossi, Lipsey and Freeman (2004) suggest that a typical evaluation study should concern itself with measuring how the process indicators (inputs and outputs) have had an effect on the outcome indicators. A program logic model would need to be assessed or designed in order for an evaluation of these standards to be possible. The logic model can and, indeed, should be used in both formative (improving the program) and summative (proving the program has worked in the desired way) evaluations.
Organizational assessment tools - fact-gathering tools for a comprehensive view of the as-is situation in an organization, but without prescribing how to change it:
Strategic planning tools - for identifying and prioritizing major long-term desired results in an organization, and strategies to achieve those results:
Program planning and evaluation tools - for developing details of individual programs (what to do and what to measure) once overall strategies have been defined:
Performance measurement tools - for measuring, monitoring and reporting the quality, efficiency, speed, cost and other aspects of projects, programs and/or processes:
Process improvement tools - for monitoring and improving the quality or efficiency of work processes:
Process standardization tools - for maintaining and documenting processes or resources to keep them repeatable and stable:
Some versions of a logic model present it as four components in a linear sequence: inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes. These represent the logical flow from:
- inputs (resources such as moneyMoneyMoney is any object or record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts in a given country or socio-economic context. The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange; a unit of account; a store of value; and, occasionally in the past,...
, employees, and equipment) to - work activities, programs or processes, to
- the immediate outputs of the work that are delivered to customerCustomerA customer is usually used to refer to a current or potential buyer or user of the products of an individual or organization, called the supplier, seller, or vendor. This is typically through purchasing or renting goods or services...
s or stakeholders, to - outcomes or results that are the medium-term to long-term consequences of delivering outputs.
This is displayed in a diagram such as this:
INPUTS --> ACTIVITIES OR PROCESSES --> OUTPUTS --> OUTCOMES
Other versions of a logic model set out a series of intermediate outcomes or results, explaining in more detail the logic of how an intervention contributes to intended or observed results. Some logic models also include assumptions, which are beliefs the prospective grantees have about the program, the people involved, and the context and the way the prospective grantees think the program will work, and external factors, consisting of the environment in which the program exists, including a variety of external factors that interact with and influence the program action.
The difference between these two approaches can be illustrated through the example of teacher home visits in Weiss' 1972 evaluation book.
This intervention can be described in terms of its inputs (teacher time, information about students' residencences, transport), processes (setting up appointments, visiting, talking with parents, writing up notes), outputs, and outcomes (improved learning by students). However this does not explain how the home visits work.
A more detailed logic model would show it is understood that home visits work - such as through improving teachers' understanding of the home conditions of their students, by establishing a co-operative relationship between teachers and parents, by encouraging the child, or through some other means. These different 'theories of change' have implications for how such visits should be designed, implemented, and evaluated; however, they are invisible in overly simple logic models.
Logic models can be drawn with the causal and temporal sequence running from left to right, from top to bottom, or from bottom to top.
Advantages
By describing work in this way, managers have an easier way to define the work and measure it. Performance measuresPerformance Measurement
Performance measurement with a process is the complement to process execution. Based on measured performance, the feedback control loop may be closed. The metrics to assess performance is set according to a determined econometric model...
can be drawn from any of the steps. One of the key insights of the logic model is the importance of measuring final outcome
Outcome
Outcome may refer to:* Outcome , a concept in game theory* The Outcome, a Swedish punk rock band* outcome measure in a clinical trial...
s or results, because it is quite possible to waste time and money (inputs), "spin the wheels" on work activities, or produce outputs without achieving desired outcomes. It is these outcomes (impacts, long-term results) that are the only justification for doing the work in the first place. For commercial organizations, outcomes relate to profit
Profit (accounting)
In accounting, profit can be considered to be the difference between the purchase price and the costs of bringing to market whatever it is that is accounted as an enterprise in terms of the component costs of delivered goods and/or services and any operating or other expenses.-Definition:There are...
. For not-for-profit
Non-profit organization
Nonprofit organization is neither a legal nor technical definition but generally refers to an organization that uses surplus revenues to achieve its goals, rather than distributing them as profit or dividends...
or governmental organizations, outcomes relate to successful achievement of mission or program goals.
Variations on the Theme
Following the early development of the logic model in the 1970s by Carol Weiss, Joseph Wholey and others, many refinements and variations have been added to the basic concept. These have incorporated language that is more familiar to a particular field.One of the common challenges facing organizations is how to measure outcomes. Because outcomes are delayed in time and may be mixed with many other causes, it is often difficult to measure them, even though outcomes are the most important strategic measures. Therefore some managers insert a step called "intermediate outcomes" between outputs and outcomes. Intermediate outcome measures are leading or indirect indicators of end outcomes. Intermediate outcomes often have to do with customer satisfaction
Customer satisfaction
Customer satisfaction, a term frequently used in marketing, is a measure of how products and services supplied by a company meet or surpass customer expectation...
, which explains why there has been an increase in the use of customer satisfaction surveys
Customer satisfaction research
Customer satisfaction research is that area of marketing research which focuses on customers' perceptions with their shopping or purchase experience....
in modern management. The advantage of customer survey
Statistical survey
Survey methodology is the field that studies surveys, that is, the sample of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample. Polls about public opinion, such as political beliefs, are reported in the news media in democracies....
s is that they are relatively quick and easy to implement, and if properly designed they can give meaningful feedback
Feedback
Feedback describes the situation when output from an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or...
on customer perceptions, which are relevant to outcomes.
University Cooperative Extension Programs in the US have developed a more elaborate logic model, called the Program Action Logic Model, which includes six steps:
- Inputs (what we invest)
- Outputs:
- Activities (the actual tasks we do)
- Participation (who we serve; customers & stakeholders)
- Outcomes - Impacts
- Short Term (learning: awareness, knowledge, skills, motivations)
- Medium Term (action: behavior, practice, decisions, policies)
- Long Term (consequences: social, economic, environmental etc.)
In front of Inputs, there is a description of a Situation and Priorities. These are the considerations that determine what Inputs will be needed.
The University of Wisconsin Extension offers a series of guidance documents on the use of logic models. There is also an extensive bibliography
Bibliography
Bibliography , as a practice, is the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology...
of work on this program logic model.
Program Planning
One of the most important uses of the logic model is for program planning. Here it helps managers to 'plan with the end in mind' Stephen CoveyStephen Covey
Stephen Richards Covey is the author of the best-selling book, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. Other books he has written include First Things First, Principle-Centered Leadership, and The Seven Habits of Highly Effective Families. In 2004, Covey released The 8th Habit...
, rather than just consider inputs (e.g. budgets, employees) or just the tasks that must be done. In the past, program logic has been justified by explaining the process from the perspective of an insider. Paul McCawley (no date) outlines how this process was approached:
- We invest this time/money so that we can generate this activity/product.
- The activity/product is needed so people will learn how to do this.
- People need to learn that so they can apply their knowledge to this practice.
- When that practice is applied, the effect will be to change this condition
- When that condition changes, we will no longer be in this situation.
While logic models have been used in this way successfully, Millar et al. (1999) has suggested that following the above sequence, from the inputs through to the outcomes, could limit one’s thinking to the existing activities, programs and research questions. Instead, by using the logic model to focus on the intended outcomes of a particular program the questions change from ‘what is being done?’ to’ what needs to be done?’ McCawley (no date) suggests that by using this new reasoning, a logic model for a program can be built by asking the following questions in sequence:
- What is the current situation that we intend to impact?
- What will it look like when we achieve the desired situation or outcome?
- What behaviors need to change for that outcome to be achieved?
- What knowledge or skills do people need before the behavior will change?
- What activities need to be performed to cause the necessary learning?
- What resources will be required to achieve the desired outcome?
By placing the focus on ultimate outcomes or results, planner
Planner
Planner may refer to:* A diary for planning* Planner programming language* Planner * Urban planner* Route planner* Meeting and convention planner* Planner , part of GNOME Office...
s can think backwards through the logic model to identify how best to achieve the desired results. Planners therefore need to understand the difference between the categories of the logic model.
Performance Evaluation
The logic model is often used in governmentGovernment
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
or not-for-profit organizations, where the mission and vision are not aimed at achieving a financial benefit. In such situations, where profit is not the intended result, it may be difficult to monitor progress toward outcomes. A program logic model provides such indicators, in terms of output and outcome measures of performance. It is therefore important in these organizations to carefully specify the desired results, and consider how to monitor them over time. Often, such as in education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
or social programs, the outcomes are long-term and mission success is far in the future. In these cases, intermediate or shorter-term outcomes may be identified that provide an indication of progress toward the ultimate long-term outcome.
Traditionally, government programs were described only in terms of their budget
Budget
A budget is a financial plan and a list of all planned expenses and revenues. It is a plan for saving, borrowing and spending. A budget is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a budget line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods...
s. It is easy to measure the amount of money spent on a program, but this is a poor indicator of mission success. Likewise it is relatively easy to measure the amount of work done (e.g. number of workers or number of years spent), but the workers may have just been 'spinning their wheels' without getting very far in terms of ultimate results or outcomes. The production of outputs is a better indicator that something was delivered to customers, but it is still possible that the output did not really meet the customer's needs, was not used, etc. Therefore, the focus on results or outcomes has become a mantra
Mantra
A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
in government and not-for-profit programs.
The President's Management Agenda
President's management agenda
The President's Management Agenda is an initiative, announced by U.S. President George W. Bush in 2001, to make the U.S. federal government more efficient and effective...
is an example of the increasing emphasis on results in government management. It states:
"Government likes to begin things — to declare grand new programs and causes. But good beginnings are not the measure of success. What matters in the end is completion. Performance. Results."
However, although outcomes are used as the primary indicators of program success or failure they are still insufficient. Outcomes may easily be achieved through processes independent of the program and an evaluation of those outcomes would suggest program success when in fact external outputs were responsible for the outcomes (Rossi, Lipsey and Freeman, 2004). In this respect, Rossi, Lipsey and Freeman (2004) suggest that a typical evaluation study should concern itself with measuring how the process indicators (inputs and outputs) have had an effect on the outcome indicators. A program logic model would need to be assessed or designed in order for an evaluation of these standards to be possible. The logic model can and, indeed, should be used in both formative (improving the program) and summative (proving the program has worked in the desired way) evaluations.
The Logic Model and other Management Frameworks
There are numerous other popular management frameworks that have been developed in recent decades. This often causes confusion, because the various frameworks have different functions. It is important to select the right tool for the job. The following list of popular management tools is suggested to indicate where they are most appropriate (this list is by no means complete):Organizational assessment tools - fact-gathering tools for a comprehensive view of the as-is situation in an organization, but without prescribing how to change it:
- Malcolm Baldrige Assessment (United States)
- EFQM (Europe)
- SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats)
- Skills audits
- Customer surveys
Strategic planning tools - for identifying and prioritizing major long-term desired results in an organization, and strategies to achieve those results:
- Strategic Vision (Writing a clear "picture of the future" statement)
- Strategy mapStrategy mapA strategy map is a diagram that is used to document the primary strategic goals being pursued by an organization or management team. It is an element of the documentation associated with the Balanced Scorecard, and in particular is characteristic of the second generation of Balanced Scorecard...
s - Portfolio Management (Managing a portfolio of interdependent projects)
- Participatory Impact Pathways AnalysisParticipatory Impact Pathways AnalysisParticipatory impact pathways analysis is a project management approach in which the participants in a project , including project staff, key stakeholders and the ultimate beneficiaries, together co-construct their program theory.- Overview :The PIPA theory describes plausible impact pathways by...
(An approach for project staff and stakeholders to jointly agree on a vision, develop a logic model and an evaluationEvaluationEvaluation is systematic determination of merit, worth, and significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of standards.Evaluation often is used to characterize and appraise subjects of interest in a wide range of human enterprises, including the arts, criminal justice,...
plan)
Program planning and evaluation tools - for developing details of individual programs (what to do and what to measure) once overall strategies have been defined:
- Program logic model (this entry)
- Work Breakdown StructureWork breakdown structureA work breakdown structure , in project management and systems engineering, is a deliverable oriented decomposition of a project into smaller components. It defines and groups a project's discrete work elements in a way that helps organize and define the total work scope of the project.A work...
- Managing for Results model
- Earned Value ManagementEarned value managementEarned value management is a project management technique for measuring project performance and progress in an objective manner. EVM has the ability to combine measurements of scope, schedule, and cost in a single integrated system. Earned Value Management is notable for its ability to provide...
- PART - Program Assessment Rating Tool (US federal government)
Performance measurement tools - for measuring, monitoring and reporting the quality, efficiency, speed, cost and other aspects of projects, programs and/or processes:
- Balanced scorecard systems
- KPI - key performance indicators
- Critical success factorCritical success factorCritical success factor is the term for an element that is necessary for an organization or project to achieve its mission. It is a critical factor or activity required for ensuring the success of a company or an organization. The term was initially used in the world of data analysis, and business...
s
Process improvement tools - for monitoring and improving the quality or efficiency of work processes:
- PDCA - Plan-do-check-act (Deming)
- TQM - Total Quality Management (Shewhart, Deming, Juran) - A set of TQM tools is available.
- Six SigmaSix SigmaSix Sigma is a business management strategy originally developed by Motorola, USA in 1986. , it is widely used in many sectors of industry.Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying and removing the causes of defects and minimizing variability in manufacturing and...
- BPR - Business Process Reengineering
- Organizational Design
Process standardization tools - for maintaining and documenting processes or resources to keep them repeatable and stable:
- ISO 9000
- CMMI - Capability Maturity Model Integration
- Configuration managementConfiguration managementConfiguration management is a field of management that focuses on establishing and maintaining consistency of a system or product's performance and its functional and physical attributes with its requirements, design, and operational information throughout its life.For information assurance, CM...
- Enterprise ArchitectureEnterprise architectureAn enterprise architecture is a rigorous description of the structure of an enterprise, which comprises enterprise components , the externally visible properties of those components, and the relationships between them...
Other resources
- Alter, C. & Murty, S. (1997). Logic modeling: A tool for teaching practice evaluation. Journal of Social Work Education, 33(1), 103-117.
- Conrad, Kendon J., & Randolph, Frances L. (1999). Creating and using logic models: Four perspectives. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 17(1-2), 17-32.
- Hernandez, Mario (2000). Using logic models and program theory to build outcome accountability. Education and Treatment of Children, 23(1), 24-41.
- Julian, David A. (1997). The utilization of the logic model as a system level planning and evaluation device. Evaluation and Program Planning, 20(3), 251-257.
- McLaughlin, J. A., & Jordan, G. B. (1999). Logic models: A tool for telling your program's performance story. Evaluation and Program Planning, 22(1), 65-72.
- Stinchcomb, Jeanne B. (2001). Using logic modeling to focus evaluation efforts: Translating operational theories into practical measures. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 33(2), 47-65.
- Unrau, Y.A. (2001). Using client exit interviews to illuminate outcomes in program logic models: A case example. Evaluation and Program Planning, 24(4), 353-361.
- Usable Knowledge (2006.) A 15 minute flash based tutorial on logic models.
Additional references
- den Heyer, M. (2001). A Bibliography for Program Logic Models / Logframe Analysis. This is a list of articles that evaluate program logic models as a set of tools and how they have been used.
- Shaping Outcomes . This is an on-line curriculum in outcomes-based planning and evaluation designed for museum and library professionals and students.
- http://www.innonet.org/client_docs/File/logic_model_workbook.pdf . This is a book on how to build a logic model
- Design, Plan, Implement - Modeling Tool (http://www.impactmap.org)