Luan Da
Encyclopedia
Luan Da was a religious figure during the early Han Dynasty
from the state of Yue
. He professed to know the secret to immortality and be able to communicate with spiritual beings. Possessing the gift of gab and adept at confidence tricks, Luan Da gained the favour of Emperor Wu of Han
, also known as Han Wudi. In the space of a few months, he rose from a commoner to great influence, holding titles and land, and marrying one of the emperor's daughters. However, he could not fulfill his promise to Emperor Wu, failing to produce a means to immortality. He gradually lost the emperor's favour and went on a purported visit to immortals
; however, he was eventually captured and executed. At the apex of his career, many of his fellow mystics held him up as their role model and sought to emulate him. His death was a sign of the trade's fall from favour; laws were passed to restrict the practice of mediumship
, even penalising those who married its practitioners.
and Han Dynasties), religion centered around the realms of shen
(spirits) and yin (shadow). These realms were considered sacred, and religious figures attempted to contact their inhabitants through elaborate ceremonies in which the perceptions of the practitioner and audience were blurred through the use of smoke, incense, and music. Other practices were also employed to further manipulate the practitioner's senses. For example, a chief priest
would fast and meditate before he performed a sacrifice. The deprivation of food was thought to make him more susceptible to perceive shen, yin, and other phenomena within the smoke during the ritual. During the Han Dynasty, alleged mediums
would fall into trances or perform ritual dances to accomplish supernatural feats. Some of these events were documented in the Shi jing (Canon of Odes), written in the Zhou Dynasty
.
with it to form a "spiritual dew". The emperor routinely drank this "spiritual dew" and only stopped after he fell severely ill from it.
The emperor employed several men who claimed to be able to produce elixirs of immortality or who could communicate with spiritual beings. Shaoweng, the court mystic who preceded Luan Da and had studied under the same teacher, performed a ritual that was exposed to be a fraud. Embarrassed that he had been tricked, the emperor ordered Shaoweng's execution and kept quiet about the affair. Shaoweng purportedly died from consuming horse liver, which was thought to be poisonous at the time. Later, Emperor Wu reconsidered Shaoweng's fraud, wondering if perhaps some of his mystical arts had been genuine. The emperor realized that his chance for immortality might have passed with Shaoweng's execution, and began to search for a new mystic.
) described him as "tall and a brilliant speaker", who was "fertile in techniques" and a master of esoteric arts, such as shadow play
. He was originally a mystic in the court of the emperor's brother, Liu Ji, the Prince of Jiao Dong. Liu Ji's wife had mentioned Luan Da to her brother, the Marquess
of Lecheng, Dingyi. Trying to boost his standing with Emperor Wu, Dingyi told the emperor of Shaoweng's far more capable fellow disciple, Luan Da, in 113 BC.
Upon their meeting, Emperor Wu inquired into Luan Da and his teacher's powers. In response, Luan Da boasted that he had met immortals
. He also claimed that with enough stature and skill, one could create gold
, manufacture a means to achieve immortality, dam the Yellow River
, and become an immortal. Luan Da then expressed concern at how Shaoweng had been killed, but the excited emperor assured him that the rumours of Shaoweng's execution were false. The emperor, in his enthusiasm, offered Luan Da anything if he would take Shaoweng's place and discover the secret of immortality from his allegedly immortal master. To this, Luan Da replied:
Remembering his experience with Shaoweng, the emperor turned cautious and tested Luan Da; he requested the mystic to display his power. Luan Da set down a chess
board and, while chanting, caused the chess pieces to charge at one another. The emperor was reassured that Luan Da truly had power. The trick was achieved by coating the pieces in a mixture of rooster's blood, iron shavings, and "magnetic dust". In Science and Civilisation in China (1986), Joseph Needham
discusses the details of this feat and proposed that lodestone
was instead likely used; powdered magnetite
would not have been very effective.
At that time, the Yellow River was flooding, causing widespread devastation to the people and the rice harvests. As Luan Da had claimed that he could dam the river, Emperor Wu felt that it would be wise to encourage the mystic to take up the task by quickly pleasing him. The emperor granted Luan Da the title of the General of Five Boons, and almost as an afterthought, three other such titles: the General of Heavenly Practitioners, the General of the Earth Practitioners, and General Grand Communicator. However, Luan Da was not satisfied with mere titles, so Emperor Wu also lavished gifts on him. He was granted the marquisate of Letong, giving him some 2,000 households to rule over, and the emperor also gave him a luxurious mansion, a thousand servants, opulent transportation, many decorations, a seal labelled "General of Heavenly Way", and even the hand in marriage of Princess Wei Zifu, the emperor's eldest daughter, accompanied by a dowry estimated at 10,000 catties
of gold. The emperor himself, along with envoys, members of the royal family, and high-ranking officials often invited Luan Da to dine or paid him house calls merely to ask how he was doing. With his marquisate and five generalships, Luan Da had become a man of great standing only a few months after his introduction to the emperor. He was no longer merely Emperor Wu's subject, but an envoy of the immortal beings with status equal to the emperor.
In possession of these newly-bestowed honours, Luan Da spent every evening at home, attempting to summon spirits. According to the Shih ji, no spirits appeared, but only "a multitude of ghosts who gathered around". These, the text claims, he was able to command. The Shih ji' s author, Sima Qian
, was scornful of Luan Da, noting that "Everyone on the seacoast of Yan and Qi began waving their arms about, declaring that they possessed secret arts and could summon spirits and immortal ones." Indeed, Luan Da's dramatic growth in reputation and stature became a great topic of discussion in the Han capital of Chang'an
, and mystics were eager to imitate his success.
. Emperor Wu, however, was already suspicious, and sent a spy to follow Luan Da.
The spy followed the court mystic to Mount Tai
, where he performed a ritual with his followers, although no one saw any immortals. The entourage proceeded next to the sea, reaching the beach. Luan Da ordered his followers to stay behind while he went ahead to meet the immortals, telling them that the spiritual beings would not descend to meet with lowly servants. The spy tailed Luan Da as he went forth alone, but only saw the mystic walk along the beach. Luan Da returned to his group and reported that he had seen his immortal master and that they were to report back to the emperor. Angered by Luan Da's deceit, the spy rushed back to the capital before the mystic to inform Emperor Wu. The emperor, incensed at Luan Da's confidence trick
s, decided to play along when the mystic returned to see what lies he would tell.
When Luan Da returned, he told the emperor of his falsified meeting with the immortals; however, he sensed that the emperor did not believe him. Before long, the emperor broke out in a rage, ordering Luan Da to tell what he had actually done. Dumbfounded, Luan Da attempted to continue his lies; however, the emperor called for the spy to come forth and expose the lies. Lost for words, Luan Da was arrested on Emperor Wu's order, and executed by having his body chopped into two at the waist. The emperor extended his fury to the Marquess of Lecheng for introducing Luan Da, having him beheaded and his body then defiled.
Later in the Han Dynasty, mystics like Luan gradually lost their influence as the rulers passed many laws against them. Mediums were not allowed to barter their crafts alongside roads, and some were even forbidden to make a living at such a craft at all. Those married to shamans
were not even allowed to hold government office, though this law was often bypassed. Luan Da's fall signaled the beginning of the end for these mystics.
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
from the state of Yue
Yue (state)
Yue was a state in China which existed during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period , in the modern province of Zhejiang. During the Spring and Autumn Period, its capital was in Guiji , near the modern city of Shaoxing...
. He professed to know the secret to immortality and be able to communicate with spiritual beings. Possessing the gift of gab and adept at confidence tricks, Luan Da gained the favour of Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han , , personal name Liu Che , was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty of China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the strong and centralized Confucian state he organized...
, also known as Han Wudi. In the space of a few months, he rose from a commoner to great influence, holding titles and land, and marrying one of the emperor's daughters. However, he could not fulfill his promise to Emperor Wu, failing to produce a means to immortality. He gradually lost the emperor's favour and went on a purported visit to immortals
Xian (Taoism)
Xian is a Chinese word for an enlightened person, translatable in English as:*"spiritually immortal; transcendent; super-human; celestial being"...
; however, he was eventually captured and executed. At the apex of his career, many of his fellow mystics held him up as their role model and sought to emulate him. His death was a sign of the trade's fall from favour; laws were passed to restrict the practice of mediumship
Mediumship
Mediumship is described as a form of communication with spirits. It is a practice in religious beliefs such as Spiritualism, Spiritism, Espiritismo, Candomblé, Voodoo and Umbanda.- Concept :...
, even penalising those who married its practitioners.
Cultural background
In early imperial China (the QinQin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
and Han Dynasties), religion centered around the realms of shen
Shen (Chinese religion)
Shen is a keyword in Chinese philosophy, Chinese religion, and Traditional Chinese Medicine.-Pronunciation:Shén is the Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation of 神 "spirit; god, deity; spiritual, supernatural; awareness, consciousness etc". Reconstructions of shén in Middle Chinese Shen is a...
(spirits) and yin (shadow). These realms were considered sacred, and religious figures attempted to contact their inhabitants through elaborate ceremonies in which the perceptions of the practitioner and audience were blurred through the use of smoke, incense, and music. Other practices were also employed to further manipulate the practitioner's senses. For example, a chief priest
Priest
A priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
would fast and meditate before he performed a sacrifice. The deprivation of food was thought to make him more susceptible to perceive shen, yin, and other phenomena within the smoke during the ritual. During the Han Dynasty, alleged mediums
Mediumship
Mediumship is described as a form of communication with spirits. It is a practice in religious beliefs such as Spiritualism, Spiritism, Espiritismo, Candomblé, Voodoo and Umbanda.- Concept :...
would fall into trances or perform ritual dances to accomplish supernatural feats. Some of these events were documented in the Shi jing (Canon of Odes), written in the Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
.
Han Wudi
Emperor Han Wudi was a superstitious man, and believed that he could attain good health and immortality through spiritual means. One such method involved collecting morning dew on a platter and mixing crushed jadeJade
Jade is an ornamental stone.The term jade is applied to two different metamorphic rocks that are made up of different silicate minerals:...
with it to form a "spiritual dew". The emperor routinely drank this "spiritual dew" and only stopped after he fell severely ill from it.
The emperor employed several men who claimed to be able to produce elixirs of immortality or who could communicate with spiritual beings. Shaoweng, the court mystic who preceded Luan Da and had studied under the same teacher, performed a ritual that was exposed to be a fraud. Embarrassed that he had been tricked, the emperor ordered Shaoweng's execution and kept quiet about the affair. Shaoweng purportedly died from consuming horse liver, which was thought to be poisonous at the time. Later, Emperor Wu reconsidered Shaoweng's fraud, wondering if perhaps some of his mystical arts had been genuine. The emperor realized that his chance for immortality might have passed with Shaoweng's execution, and began to search for a new mystic.
Career
Early life
Not much is known about Luan Da's early life, only that he was born in Yue and was the eldest child in his family. Records do not even reveal his full name; the Da (大; big) simply signified his seniority over his siblings. It was conventional at the time to omit surnames for minor figures in the annals of Chinese history, and thus this is not unusual.Rise to power
The state of Yue was renowned for its mediums, and Luan Da was a fine example. The Shih ji (Records of the Grand HistorianRecords of the Grand Historian
The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name Shiji , written from 109 BC to 91 BC, was the Magnum opus of Sima Qian, in which he recounted Chinese history from the time of the Yellow Emperor until his own time...
) described him as "tall and a brilliant speaker", who was "fertile in techniques" and a master of esoteric arts, such as shadow play
Shadow play
Shadow play or shadow puppetry Shadow puppets have a long history in China, India, Turkey and Java, and as a popular form of entertainment for both children and adults in many countries around the world. A shadow puppet is a cut-out figure held between a source of light and a translucent screen...
. He was originally a mystic in the court of the emperor's brother, Liu Ji, the Prince of Jiao Dong. Liu Ji's wife had mentioned Luan Da to her brother, the Marquess
Marquess
A marquess or marquis is a nobleman of hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The term is also used to translate equivalent oriental styles, as in imperial China, Japan, and Vietnam...
of Lecheng, Dingyi. Trying to boost his standing with Emperor Wu, Dingyi told the emperor of Shaoweng's far more capable fellow disciple, Luan Da, in 113 BC.
Upon their meeting, Emperor Wu inquired into Luan Da and his teacher's powers. In response, Luan Da boasted that he had met immortals
Xian (Taoism)
Xian is a Chinese word for an enlightened person, translatable in English as:*"spiritually immortal; transcendent; super-human; celestial being"...
. He also claimed that with enough stature and skill, one could create gold
Alchemy
Alchemy is an influential philosophical tradition whose early practitioners’ claims to profound powers were known from antiquity. The defining objectives of alchemy are varied; these include the creation of the fabled philosopher's stone possessing powers including the capability of turning base...
, manufacture a means to achieve immortality, dam the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
, and become an immortal. Luan Da then expressed concern at how Shaoweng had been killed, but the excited emperor assured him that the rumours of Shaoweng's execution were false. The emperor, in his enthusiasm, offered Luan Da anything if he would take Shaoweng's place and discover the secret of immortality from his allegedly immortal master. To this, Luan Da replied:
Remembering his experience with Shaoweng, the emperor turned cautious and tested Luan Da; he requested the mystic to display his power. Luan Da set down a chess
Xiangqi
Xiangqi is a two-player Chinese board game in the same family as Western chess, chaturanga, shogi, Indian chess and janggi. The present-day form of Xiangqi originated in China and is therefore commonly called Chinese chess in English. Xiangqi is one of the most popular board games in China...
board and, while chanting, caused the chess pieces to charge at one another. The emperor was reassured that Luan Da truly had power. The trick was achieved by coating the pieces in a mixture of rooster's blood, iron shavings, and "magnetic dust". In Science and Civilisation in China (1986), Joseph Needham
Joseph Needham
Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA , also known as Li Yuese , was a British scientist, historian and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1941, and as a fellow of the British...
discusses the details of this feat and proposed that lodestone
Lodestone
A lodestone or loadstone is a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite. They are naturally occurring magnets, that attract pieces of iron. Ancient people first discovered the property of magnetism in lodestone...
was instead likely used; powdered magnetite
Magnetite
Magnetite is a ferrimagnetic mineral with chemical formula Fe3O4, one of several iron oxides and a member of the spinel group. The chemical IUPAC name is iron oxide and the common chemical name is ferrous-ferric oxide. The formula for magnetite may also be written as FeO·Fe2O3, which is one part...
would not have been very effective.
At that time, the Yellow River was flooding, causing widespread devastation to the people and the rice harvests. As Luan Da had claimed that he could dam the river, Emperor Wu felt that it would be wise to encourage the mystic to take up the task by quickly pleasing him. The emperor granted Luan Da the title of the General of Five Boons, and almost as an afterthought, three other such titles: the General of Heavenly Practitioners, the General of the Earth Practitioners, and General Grand Communicator. However, Luan Da was not satisfied with mere titles, so Emperor Wu also lavished gifts on him. He was granted the marquisate of Letong, giving him some 2,000 households to rule over, and the emperor also gave him a luxurious mansion, a thousand servants, opulent transportation, many decorations, a seal labelled "General of Heavenly Way", and even the hand in marriage of Princess Wei Zifu, the emperor's eldest daughter, accompanied by a dowry estimated at 10,000 catties
Catty
The catty , symbol 斤, is a traditional Chinese unit of mass used across East and Southeast Asia, notably for weighing food and other groceries in some wet markets, street markets, and shops. Related units include the picul, equal to 100 catties, and the tael, which is of a catty. A stone is a...
of gold. The emperor himself, along with envoys, members of the royal family, and high-ranking officials often invited Luan Da to dine or paid him house calls merely to ask how he was doing. With his marquisate and five generalships, Luan Da had become a man of great standing only a few months after his introduction to the emperor. He was no longer merely Emperor Wu's subject, but an envoy of the immortal beings with status equal to the emperor.
In possession of these newly-bestowed honours, Luan Da spent every evening at home, attempting to summon spirits. According to the Shih ji, no spirits appeared, but only "a multitude of ghosts who gathered around". These, the text claims, he was able to command. The Shih ji
Sima Qian
Sima Qian was a Prefect of the Grand Scribes of the Han Dynasty. He is regarded as the father of Chinese historiography for his highly praised work, Records of the Grand Historian , a "Jizhuanti"-style general history of China, covering more than two thousand years from the Yellow Emperor to...
, was scornful of Luan Da, noting that "Everyone on the seacoast of Yan and Qi began waving their arms about, declaring that they possessed secret arts and could summon spirits and immortal ones." Indeed, Luan Da's dramatic growth in reputation and stature became a great topic of discussion in the Han capital of Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
, and mystics were eager to imitate his success.
Fall from power and death
By the summer after his elevation, Luan Da had forgotten the emperor's request for an audience with the immortals. Emperor Wu, anxious to achieve immortality, sent an envoy to remind his court mystic of his task. Luan Da attempted to delay, but eventually realised he had to appease the emperor and allay his suspicions. The mystic decided to put on an act of journeying to meet the immortals. With a group of followers, he travelled to ShandongShandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
. Emperor Wu, however, was already suspicious, and sent a spy to follow Luan Da.
The spy followed the court mystic to Mount Tai
Mount Tai
Mount Tai is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an, in Shandong province, People's Republic of China. The tallest peak is the Jade Emperor Peak , which is commonly reported as tall, but is described by the PRC government as .Mount Tai is one of the...
, where he performed a ritual with his followers, although no one saw any immortals. The entourage proceeded next to the sea, reaching the beach. Luan Da ordered his followers to stay behind while he went ahead to meet the immortals, telling them that the spiritual beings would not descend to meet with lowly servants. The spy tailed Luan Da as he went forth alone, but only saw the mystic walk along the beach. Luan Da returned to his group and reported that he had seen his immortal master and that they were to report back to the emperor. Angered by Luan Da's deceit, the spy rushed back to the capital before the mystic to inform Emperor Wu. The emperor, incensed at Luan Da's confidence trick
Confidence trick
A confidence trick is an attempt to defraud a person or group by gaining their confidence. A confidence artist is an individual working alone or in concert with others who exploits characteristics of the human psyche such as dishonesty and honesty, vanity, compassion, credulity, irresponsibility,...
s, decided to play along when the mystic returned to see what lies he would tell.
When Luan Da returned, he told the emperor of his falsified meeting with the immortals; however, he sensed that the emperor did not believe him. Before long, the emperor broke out in a rage, ordering Luan Da to tell what he had actually done. Dumbfounded, Luan Da attempted to continue his lies; however, the emperor called for the spy to come forth and expose the lies. Lost for words, Luan Da was arrested on Emperor Wu's order, and executed by having his body chopped into two at the waist. The emperor extended his fury to the Marquess of Lecheng for introducing Luan Da, having him beheaded and his body then defiled.
Later in the Han Dynasty, mystics like Luan gradually lost their influence as the rulers passed many laws against them. Mediums were not allowed to barter their crafts alongside roads, and some were even forbidden to make a living at such a craft at all. Those married to shamans
Shamanism
Shamanism is an anthropological term referencing a range of beliefs and practices regarding communication with the spiritual world. To quote Eliade: "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = technique of ecstasy." Shamanism encompasses the...
were not even allowed to hold government office, though this law was often bypassed. Luan Da's fall signaled the beginning of the end for these mystics.