Lysurus periphragmoides
Encyclopedia
Lysurus periphragmoides, commonly known as the stalked lattice stinkhorn or chambered stinkhorn, is a species
of fungus
in the stinkhorn family. It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831, and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus
in 1980. The saprobic fungus has a pantropical
distribution, and has been found in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch
. The fruit body
, which can extend up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, consists of a reddish latticed head (a receptaculum) placed on top of a long stalk. A dark olive-green spore
mass, the gleba
, fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms. Like other members of the Phallaceae family, the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores. The immature "egg" form of the fungus is considered edible
.
The basionym
for this species is Simblum periphragmoides, first described by German mycologist Johann Friedrich Klotzsch
in 1831, based on specimens collected in Bois Chéry in Mauritius
. Klotzsch designated it as the type species
of Simblum, a genus differentiated from the similar genus Lysurus
by having the fruit body ending in a spherical, chambered head, with gleba
developing within the depressions of the chambers. Lysurus periphragmoides is a morphologically
variable species; as a result, it has acquired an extensive number of synonyms
, as various authors have decided that the different forms warranted being designated as new species. Donald Malcolm Dring's 1980 monograph
on the Clathraceae (a family
that has since been subsumed into the Phallaceae) transferred the taxon to Lysurus, explaining "a distinction between "Simblum" and Lysurus in the original restricted sense cannot be easily maintained because there are examples of intermediates states", and he lumped 18 synonyms under L. periphragmoides.
In one noted example of an author being too eager to assign a new name, in 1902 George Francis Atkinson described a specimen he found in Texas
, otherwise similar to Simblum but with a loose net drooping from the head; he initiated the new genus Dictybole to include his "new" species D. texense. The species was, according to mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd
, merely a decomposing or insect-damaged specimen of L. periphragmoides that had been preserved in alcohol. Lloyd criticized Atkinson's poor judgment in his self-published journal Mycological Notes, and later, humiliated him under the pen name
N.J. McGinty. William H. Long later (1907) transferred Atkinson's taxon to the genus Simblum, claiming that the yellow arms and longer spores were sufficiently distinct to consider it distinct from L. periphragmoides (then known as Simblum sphaerocephalum); however, according to Dring, D. texense should also be considered a synonym of L. periphragmoides. Despite Dring's renaming, and the subsequent acceptance of his subsuming of the genus Simblum into Lysurus, the species is still occasionally referred to Simblum sphaerocephalum.
The specific epithet periphragmoides means "fenced in all around", and refers to the latticed structure of the cap. The fungus is commonly
known as the "stalked lattice stinkhorn" or "chambered stinkhorn".
. The peridium
is white to buff-colored on the external surface, and has a gelatinous layer inside. An egg cut in half lengthwise reveals internal layers, including a tough white outer peridium, and a thick layer of firm, translucent, gelatinous matter transversed by strands (trabeculae) of denser white tissue. The strands are anastomosing partitions, connecting with the peridium externally and with the bars of the receptaculum within. The gelatinous layer is therefore divided up into many irregular longitudinal chambers.
The egg eventually ruptures as the stalk expands and breaks through, creating a volva
at the base of the stipe. In maturity, the fruit bodies, are up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, with a latticed spherical cap
(the receptaculum) atop a long yellow or reddish stipe
. In general, Old World
specimens tend to be yellow, while New World
specimens are reddish, although exceptions have been noted in the literature. The receptaculum is typically 1.5 – in diameter and forms a red or orange lattice, or mesh. There are typically between 20 and 100 small pentagonal to hexagonal meshes in the receptaculum; the arms of the mesh have sharp ridges on the outer surface, corrugations on the sides, and are flat to weakly ridged on the inner surface. The internal surfaces of the receptaculum are covered with an olive-green spore
-bearing gleba
, which sometimes seeps through the mesh holes. Like most stinkhorn species, the gleba has a foul odor, comparable to rotten meat, but it is "less-offensive" than most. The smell of fresh, newly exposed gleba has been reported to be sweet, similar to amyl acetate
; the foul odor forming only after it has been exposed to air for some time. The stipe is 5 – by 0.8 – thick, and is hollow and spongy. The walls of the stipe are made of an inner layer of large tubes and two or three outer layers of small tubes. Specimens may occasionally be found with fused heads on two separate stipes arising from a single volva.
A variety with a white fruit body is known, Lysurus periphragmoides var. albidum (originally described as Simblum texense var. albidum by Long). It was reported growing from sandy alkaline soil in semi-arid
regions of New Mexico
, but has not been reported again since Long's collections in 1941.
Spore
s are elliptical or oblong in shape, smooth, inamyloid
, and have dimensions of 3.5–4.5 by 1.5–2.5 µm
. The use of scanning electron microscopy has revealed that L. periphragmoides (in addition to several other Phallales species) has a hilar scar—a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium
via the sterigma
.
Like many of the stinkhorns, L. periphragmoides is generally considered only edible
when in its immature "egg" form.
has an angular stipe and a receptacle of four to five clasped arms, contoured like the stipe with alternating ribs and furrows. L. cruciatus has a rounder stipe with receptacle arms that are not clasped together at maturity. The receptacle of L. gardneri, found in south-east Asia, India, and Africa, is made of five to seven reddish-brown fingers that are initially pressed together before separating.
, pastures, and open woods. A North American field guide
notes an association with apple orchards and cornfields.
Lysurus periphragmoides has a pantropical
distribution. The fungus has been reported from Africa (Mauritius
, Tanzania
), Asia (Jilin Province, China, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Indonesia), Australasia (New Guinea), North America (Bahamas, Dominica, Mexico) and South America (Argentina, Brazil, and Venezuela). The distribution extends north to the Ryuku Islands in Asia. It is fairly common in South America, but is usually restricts its appearance to periods of wet weather in southern North America.
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
of fungus
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
in the stinkhorn family. It was originally described as Simblum periphragmoides in 1831, and has been known as many different names before being transferred to Lysurus
Lysurus
Lysurus is a genus of bird in the Emberizidae family. Recent evidence indicates this genus should be merged into Arremon, but if recognized as a valid genus, it contains the following species:* Olive Finch...
in 1980. The saprobic fungus has a pantropical
Pantropical
In biogeography, a pantropical distribution one which covers tropical regions of all of the major continents, i.e. in Africa, in Asia and in the Americas. Examples include the plant genera Acacia and Bacopa....
distribution, and has been found in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, where it grows on fertile ground and on mulch
Mulch
In agriculture and gardening, is a protective cover placed over the soil to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and seed germination. Mulching in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest floors....
. The fruit body
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
, which can extend up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, consists of a reddish latticed head (a receptaculum) placed on top of a long stalk. A dark olive-green spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
mass, the gleba
Gleba
Gleba is the fleshy spore-bearing inner mass of fungi such as the puffball or stinkhorn.The gleba is a solid mass of spores, generated within an enclosed area within the sporocarp. The continuous maturity of the sporogenous cells leave the spores behind as a powdery mass that can be easily blown away...
, fills the interior of the lattice and extends outwards between the arms. Like other members of the Phallaceae family, the gleba has a fetid odor that attracts flies and other insects to help disperse its spores. The immature "egg" form of the fungus is considered edible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
.
Taxonomy and naming
Basionym
Basionym is a term used in botany, regulated by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature...
for this species is Simblum periphragmoides, first described by German mycologist Johann Friedrich Klotzsch
Johann Friedrich Klotzsch
Johann Friedrich Klotzsch was a German pharmacist and botanist.His principal work was in the field of mycology, with the study and description of many species of mushroom.-Selected works:...
in 1831, based on specimens collected in Bois Chéry in Mauritius
Mauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
. Klotzsch designated it as the type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of Simblum, a genus differentiated from the similar genus Lysurus
Lysurus
Lysurus is a genus of bird in the Emberizidae family. Recent evidence indicates this genus should be merged into Arremon, but if recognized as a valid genus, it contains the following species:* Olive Finch...
by having the fruit body ending in a spherical, chambered head, with gleba
Gleba
Gleba is the fleshy spore-bearing inner mass of fungi such as the puffball or stinkhorn.The gleba is a solid mass of spores, generated within an enclosed area within the sporocarp. The continuous maturity of the sporogenous cells leave the spores behind as a powdery mass that can be easily blown away...
developing within the depressions of the chambers. Lysurus periphragmoides is a morphologically
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
variable species; as a result, it has acquired an extensive number of synonyms
Synonym (taxonomy)
In scientific nomenclature, a synonym is a scientific name that is or was used for a taxon of organisms that also goes by a different scientific name. For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies...
, as various authors have decided that the different forms warranted being designated as new species. Donald Malcolm Dring's 1980 monograph
Monograph
A monograph is a work of writing upon a single subject, usually by a single author.It is often a scholarly essay or learned treatise, and may be released in the manner of a book or journal article. It is by definition a single document that forms a complete text in itself...
on the Clathraceae (a family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
that has since been subsumed into the Phallaceae) transferred the taxon to Lysurus, explaining "a distinction between "Simblum" and Lysurus in the original restricted sense cannot be easily maintained because there are examples of intermediates states", and he lumped 18 synonyms under L. periphragmoides.
In one noted example of an author being too eager to assign a new name, in 1902 George Francis Atkinson described a specimen he found in Texas
Texas
Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...
, otherwise similar to Simblum but with a loose net drooping from the head; he initiated the new genus Dictybole to include his "new" species D. texense. The species was, according to mycologist Curtis Gates Lloyd
Curtis Gates Lloyd
Curtis Gates Lloyd was an American mycologist known for both his research on the Gasteromycetes, as well as his controversial views on naming conventions in taxonomy. He had a herbarium with over 59,000 fungal specimens, and published over a thousand new species of fungi...
, merely a decomposing or insect-damaged specimen of L. periphragmoides that had been preserved in alcohol. Lloyd criticized Atkinson's poor judgment in his self-published journal Mycological Notes, and later, humiliated him under the pen name
Pen name
A pen name, nom de plume, or literary double, is a pseudonym adopted by an author. A pen name may be used to make the author's name more distinctive, to disguise his or her gender, to distance an author from some or all of his or her works, to protect the author from retribution for his or her...
N.J. McGinty. William H. Long later (1907) transferred Atkinson's taxon to the genus Simblum, claiming that the yellow arms and longer spores were sufficiently distinct to consider it distinct from L. periphragmoides (then known as Simblum sphaerocephalum); however, according to Dring, D. texense should also be considered a synonym of L. periphragmoides. Despite Dring's renaming, and the subsequent acceptance of his subsuming of the genus Simblum into Lysurus, the species is still occasionally referred to Simblum sphaerocephalum.
The specific epithet periphragmoides means "fenced in all around", and refers to the latticed structure of the cap. The fungus is commonly
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
known as the "stalked lattice stinkhorn" or "chambered stinkhorn".
Description
Immature fruiting bodies of L. periphragmoides start as round or oval "eggs" that may be up to 5 cm (2 in) in diameter. On the underside of the egg are whitish rhizomorphs that anchor it to the substrateSubstrate (biology)
In biology a substrate is the surface a plant or animal lives upon and grows on. A substrate can include biotic or abiotic materials and animals. For example, encrusting algae that lives on a rock can be substrate for another animal that lives on top of the algae. See also substrate .-External...
. The peridium
Peridium
The peridium is the protective layer that encloses a mass of spores in fungi. This outer covering is a distinctive feature of the Gasteromycetes.-Description:...
is white to buff-colored on the external surface, and has a gelatinous layer inside. An egg cut in half lengthwise reveals internal layers, including a tough white outer peridium, and a thick layer of firm, translucent, gelatinous matter transversed by strands (trabeculae) of denser white tissue. The strands are anastomosing partitions, connecting with the peridium externally and with the bars of the receptaculum within. The gelatinous layer is therefore divided up into many irregular longitudinal chambers.
The egg eventually ruptures as the stalk expands and breaks through, creating a volva
Volva (mycology)
The volva is a mycological term to describe a cup-like structure at the base of a mushroom that is a remnant of the universal veil. This macrofeature is important in wild mushroom identification due to it being an easily observed, taxonomically significant feature which frequently signifies a...
at the base of the stipe. In maturity, the fruit bodies, are up to 15 cm (5.9 in) tall, with a latticed spherical cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
(the receptaculum) atop a long yellow or reddish stipe
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
. In general, Old World
Old World
The Old World consists of those parts of the world known to classical antiquity and the European Middle Ages. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World" ....
specimens tend to be yellow, while New World
New World
The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically America and sometimes Oceania . The term originated in the late 15th century, when America had been recently discovered by European explorers, expanding the geographical horizon of the people of the European middle...
specimens are reddish, although exceptions have been noted in the literature. The receptaculum is typically 1.5 – in diameter and forms a red or orange lattice, or mesh. There are typically between 20 and 100 small pentagonal to hexagonal meshes in the receptaculum; the arms of the mesh have sharp ridges on the outer surface, corrugations on the sides, and are flat to weakly ridged on the inner surface. The internal surfaces of the receptaculum are covered with an olive-green spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
-bearing gleba
Gleba
Gleba is the fleshy spore-bearing inner mass of fungi such as the puffball or stinkhorn.The gleba is a solid mass of spores, generated within an enclosed area within the sporocarp. The continuous maturity of the sporogenous cells leave the spores behind as a powdery mass that can be easily blown away...
, which sometimes seeps through the mesh holes. Like most stinkhorn species, the gleba has a foul odor, comparable to rotten meat, but it is "less-offensive" than most. The smell of fresh, newly exposed gleba has been reported to be sweet, similar to amyl acetate
Amyl acetate
Amyl acetate is an organic compound and an ester with the chemical formula CH3COO[CH2]4CH3 and the molecular weight 130.19 g/mol. It has a scent similar to bananas and apples which is not detectable by all people. The compound is the condensation product of acetic acid and 1-pentanol...
; the foul odor forming only after it has been exposed to air for some time. The stipe is 5 – by 0.8 – thick, and is hollow and spongy. The walls of the stipe are made of an inner layer of large tubes and two or three outer layers of small tubes. Specimens may occasionally be found with fused heads on two separate stipes arising from a single volva.
A variety with a white fruit body is known, Lysurus periphragmoides var. albidum (originally described as Simblum texense var. albidum by Long). It was reported growing from sandy alkaline soil in semi-arid
Semi-arid
A semi-arid climate or steppe climate describes climatic regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not extremely...
regions of New Mexico
New Mexico
New Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
, but has not been reported again since Long's collections in 1941.
Spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s are elliptical or oblong in shape, smooth, inamyloid
Amyloid (mycology)
In mycology the term amyloid refers to a crude chemical test using iodine in either Melzer's reagent or Lugol's solution, to produce a black to blue-black positive reaction. It is called amyloid because starch gives a similar reaction, and that reaction for starch is also called an amyloid reaction...
, and have dimensions of 3.5–4.5 by 1.5–2.5 µm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
. The use of scanning electron microscopy has revealed that L. periphragmoides (in addition to several other Phallales species) has a hilar scar—a small indentation in the surface of the spore where it was previously connected to the basidium
Basidium
thumb|right|500px|Schematic showing a basidiomycete mushroom, gill structure, and spore-bearing basidia on the gill margins.A basidium is a microscopic, spore-producing structure found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi. The presence of basidia is one of the main...
via the sterigma
Sterigma
thumb|right|The sterigmata is the slender extension that connects the spore to the basidia .A sterigma is an extension of the basidium consisting of a basal filamentous part and a slender projection with a spore at the tip...
.
Like many of the stinkhorns, L. periphragmoides is generally considered only edible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
when in its immature "egg" form.
Similar species
Lysurus periphragmoides is morphologically distinct, and unlikely to be confused with any other species. Within the genus Lysurus, L. mokusinLysurus mokusin
Lysurus mokusin, commonly known as the lantern stinkhorn, the small lizard's claw, or the ribbed lizard claw, is a saprobic species of fungus in the family Phallaceae. The fruit body consists of a reddish, cylindrical fluted stipe that is capped with several "arms". The arms can approach or even...
has an angular stipe and a receptacle of four to five clasped arms, contoured like the stipe with alternating ribs and furrows. L. cruciatus has a rounder stipe with receptacle arms that are not clasped together at maturity. The receptacle of L. gardneri, found in south-east Asia, India, and Africa, is made of five to seven reddish-brown fingers that are initially pressed together before separating.
Habitat and distribution
This species is typically found growing solitary or in groups on lawns, mulchMulch
In agriculture and gardening, is a protective cover placed over the soil to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and seed germination. Mulching in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found on forest floors....
, pastures, and open woods. A North American field guide
Field guide
A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife or other objects of natural occurrence . It is generally designed to be brought into the 'field' or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects...
notes an association with apple orchards and cornfields.
Lysurus periphragmoides has a pantropical
Pantropical
In biogeography, a pantropical distribution one which covers tropical regions of all of the major continents, i.e. in Africa, in Asia and in the Americas. Examples include the plant genera Acacia and Bacopa....
distribution. The fungus has been reported from Africa (Mauritius
Mauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
, Tanzania
Tanzania
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
), Asia (Jilin Province, China, Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Indonesia), Australasia (New Guinea), North America (Bahamas, Dominica, Mexico) and South America (Argentina, Brazil, and Venezuela). The distribution extends north to the Ryuku Islands in Asia. It is fairly common in South America, but is usually restricts its appearance to periods of wet weather in southern North America.