Madhusudana Sarasvati
Encyclopedia
Madhusūdana Sarasvatī was an India
n philosopher
in the Advaita Vedānta
tradition. He is disciple of viSveSvara sarasvatI and mAdhava sarasvatI, is the most celebrated name in the annals of the great dvaita-advaita debate. He also flourished in the 16th century. His Advaitasiddhi is a classic work, and most advaita teachers maintain that all the logical issues raised by the dvaita
school of AnandatIrtha have been more than sufficiently answered by madhusūdana.
, and originally called Kamalanayana. He was educated in the Navya-Nyāya
tradition, but became an Advaita sannyāsin
, and moved to Varanasi
in order to study Advaita.
in the flourishing Navya Nyaya school. He is said to have studied works of Udayana
such as the laxaNAvalI, the tattva-chintAmaNi of Gangesha
and its commentaries. Soon MadhusUdana was recognized as a foremost scholar in Nyaya
. He was also said to have been influenced by the wave of bhakti
sweeping across Bengal
due to Chaitanya. One story mentions that MadhusUdana had, at that time, accepted the bheda-vAda
, the doctrine of difference. The realism of Nyaya
seemed to provide a logical basis to bheda
. He soon became keen on "disproving" advaita using all his skills in logic
. But at the time, he had not done an in-depth study of Advaita with the intention of learning the details of Advaita Vedanta
so that he could later disprove them, he proceeded to the sacred city of Varanasi
. There, he studied Vedanta
under RAma-tIrtha. But as MadhusUdana studied advaita more and more, he became convinced of the correctness of advaita. He later confessed to his Guru, Rama-tIrtha that he had originally come to study Advaita with a view to refute it and was there any prAyashchitta
for him. RAma tIrtha is said to have asked MadhusUdana to accept sannyAsa as the prAyashchitta
.
Regardless of whether these stories are true or not, it is true that a reading of the advaita-siddhi shows that MadhusUdana is enormously skilled in dealing with logic
and dialectics. Note also that the naiyAyika
, who is a realist to the core, is as much an opponent of the advaitin in debates as other realists such as the dvaitins
. After all, the great advaitin dialectician mahAkavi Śrī Harshā, who came several centuries before MadhusUdana, systematically and completely demolished Nyaya
doctrines. Whereas MadhusUdana is more interested in defending advaita, Śrī Harshā is on the attack throughout his treatise, KhaNDanakhaNDakhAdya. Also, Śrī Harshā emphasizes the dialectical part of the debate whereas MadhusUdana also effectively tackles the exegetical (interpretation of Vedanta
) aspects.
, of which the largest and most respected is the Advaitasiddhi, which opposes the Dvaita Vedānta
positions and arguments in Vyāsatīrtha's
work Nyāyāmŗta. Madhusūdana also wrote at least nine other works, of which five were commentaries (on the Bhagavadgīta
, part of the Bhāgavatapurāņa
, and others). He wrote the ISvarapratipatti-prakASa, vedAntakalpalatikA, sArasangraha on sarvajnAtman's samkshepa-SArIraka, and the justly famous siddhAntabindu on SankarAcArya's daSaSlokI.
A total of twenty-one books have been ascribed to Madhusūdana. Of them, nineteen books are undoubtedly his, but the authorship of the remaining two is doubtful. Twelve of his books are on philosophy, the rest are poems, plays and miscellaneous themes. The philosophical books include commentaries.
,
Meaning : When MadhusUdana, the master of speech, came to navadvIpa, MathurAnAtha tarkavAgIsha (who was the foremost navya naiyAyika during those times) trembled (with fear) and GadAdhara (another logician of great repute) became afraid.
A few words about the authors. MadhusUdana sarasvatI is a towering giant among advaitins. An oft quoted verse regarding him is,
Meaning : (Only) the Goddess of Learning, Sarasvati knows the limits of (knowledge of) Madhusūdana Sarasvati. And Madhusūdana Sarasvati knows the limits of (knowledge of) Goddess Sarasvati.
, madhusūdana bridged the sAtvata school of Pancaratra
Vaishnavism
and Advaita Vedanta
philosophy. It is also interesting to note that madhusUdana boldly differs from Adi Sankara in some of his interpretations of the Brahma Sutras
and the gItA, although he salutes Adi Sankara and Suresvara in the most reverential terms. Tradition also recounts that viTThaleSa, the son of vallabhacharya of the Suddhadvaita school, studied under madhusūdana sarasvatI, who thus forms a crucial link between Advaita Vedanta
and many vaishNava sects in the north.
. He led many symposia attended by both Hindu
sādhus
and Muslim
mullāhs
. It is said that on Akbar's suggestion, madhusUdana initiated large numbers of sannyasins from kshatriya
and vaishya
communities to the dasanami orders
, in order to form a group of martially trained ascetics to protect the people. This most probably reflects historical fact. Armed nAga sannyAsin warriors, tracing their origins to madhusūdana sarasvatI, and affiliated with the daSanAmI akhADas, were a component of almost every Rajput
army in Northern India, till fairly recent times.
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n philosopher
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
in the Advaita Vedānta
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
tradition. He is disciple of viSveSvara sarasvatI and mAdhava sarasvatI, is the most celebrated name in the annals of the great dvaita-advaita debate. He also flourished in the 16th century. His Advaitasiddhi is a classic work, and most advaita teachers maintain that all the logical issues raised by the dvaita
Dvaita
Dvaita is a school of Vedanta founded by Shri Madhvacharya....
school of AnandatIrtha have been more than sufficiently answered by madhusūdana.
Birth and Education
Madhusūdana was born in BengalBengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
, and originally called Kamalanayana. He was educated in the Navya-Nyāya
Navya-Nyaya
The Navya-Nyāya or Neo-Logical darśana of Indian logic and Indian philosophy was founded in the 13th century CE by the philosopher Gangeśa Upādhyāya of Mithila. It was a development of the classical Nyāya darśana. Other influences on Navya-Nyāya were the work of earlier philosophers Vācaspati...
tradition, but became an Advaita sannyāsin
Sannyasa
Sannyasa is the order of life of the renouncer within the Hindu scheme of āśramas, or life stages. It is considered the topmost and final stage of the ashram systems and is traditionally taken by men or women at or beyond the age of fifty years old or by young monks who wish to renounce worldly...
, and moved to Varanasi
Varanasi
-Etymology:The name Varanasi has its origin possibly from the names of the two rivers Varuna and Assi, for the old city lies in the north shores of the Ganga bounded by its two tributaries, the Varuna and the Asi, with the Ganges being to its south...
in order to study Advaita.
Journey from Dvaita to Advaita
According to a story, MadhusUdana SarasvatI is said to have really gone to Navadvipa to meet Chaitanya, the great devotee of Krishna. But the MahAprabhu was no longer staying in NavadvIpa. So MadhusUdana is said to have turned his attention to studying NyayaNyaya
' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
in the flourishing Navya Nyaya school. He is said to have studied works of Udayana
Udayana
- Introduction :Udayana also known as Udayanācārya lived in the 10th century, in Kariyan village in Mithila, near present day Darbhanga, Bihar state, India. Udayana was a very important Hindu logician who attempted to reconcile the views held by the two major schools of logic...
such as the laxaNAvalI, the tattva-chintAmaNi of Gangesha
Gangesha Upadhyaya
Gangesha Upadhyaya was an Indian mathematician and philosopher from the kingdom of Mithila. He established the Navya-Nyāya school. His Tattvacintāmaṇi also known as Pramāṇacintāmaṇi is the basic text for all later developments...
and its commentaries. Soon MadhusUdana was recognized as a foremost scholar in Nyaya
Nyaya
' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
. He was also said to have been influenced by the wave of bhakti
Bhakti
In Hinduism Bhakti is religious devotion in the form of active involvement of a devotee in worship of the divine.Within monotheistic Hinduism, it is the love felt by the worshipper towards the personal God, a concept expressed in Hindu theology as Svayam Bhagavan.Bhakti can be used of either...
sweeping across Bengal
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
due to Chaitanya. One story mentions that MadhusUdana had, at that time, accepted the bheda-vAda
Dvaita
Dvaita is a school of Vedanta founded by Shri Madhvacharya....
, the doctrine of difference. The realism of Nyaya
Nyaya
' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
seemed to provide a logical basis to bheda
Dvaita
Dvaita is a school of Vedanta founded by Shri Madhvacharya....
. He soon became keen on "disproving" advaita using all his skills in logic
Nyaya
' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
. But at the time, he had not done an in-depth study of Advaita with the intention of learning the details of Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
so that he could later disprove them, he proceeded to the sacred city of Varanasi
Varanasi
-Etymology:The name Varanasi has its origin possibly from the names of the two rivers Varuna and Assi, for the old city lies in the north shores of the Ganga bounded by its two tributaries, the Varuna and the Asi, with the Ganges being to its south...
. There, he studied Vedanta
Vedanta
Vedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal...
under RAma-tIrtha. But as MadhusUdana studied advaita more and more, he became convinced of the correctness of advaita. He later confessed to his Guru, Rama-tIrtha that he had originally come to study Advaita with a view to refute it and was there any prAyashchitta
Prayascitta
Prāyaścitta is the Hindu term for penance and, along with vyavahāra and ācāra makes up the dharmaśāstra. It is the word used for the portion of Hindu law and the dharmaśāstra that has to do with the expiation of sins...
for him. RAma tIrtha is said to have asked MadhusUdana to accept sannyAsa as the prAyashchitta
Prayascitta
Prāyaścitta is the Hindu term for penance and, along with vyavahāra and ācāra makes up the dharmaśāstra. It is the word used for the portion of Hindu law and the dharmaśāstra that has to do with the expiation of sins...
.
Regardless of whether these stories are true or not, it is true that a reading of the advaita-siddhi shows that MadhusUdana is enormously skilled in dealing with logic
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
and dialectics. Note also that the naiyAyika
Nyaya
' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
, who is a realist to the core, is as much an opponent of the advaitin in debates as other realists such as the dvaitins
Dvaita
Dvaita is a school of Vedanta founded by Shri Madhvacharya....
. After all, the great advaitin dialectician mahAkavi Śrī Harshā, who came several centuries before MadhusUdana, systematically and completely demolished Nyaya
Nyaya
' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
doctrines. Whereas MadhusUdana is more interested in defending advaita, Śrī Harshā is on the attack throughout his treatise, KhaNDanakhaNDakhAdya. Also, Śrī Harshā emphasizes the dialectical part of the debate whereas MadhusUdana also effectively tackles the exegetical (interpretation of Vedanta
Vedanta
Vedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal...
) aspects.
Works
Madhusūdana wrote a number of works, all involving the defence and exposition of Advaita VedāntaAdvaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
, of which the largest and most respected is the Advaitasiddhi, which opposes the Dvaita Vedānta
Dvaita
Dvaita is a school of Vedanta founded by Shri Madhvacharya....
positions and arguments in Vyāsatīrtha's
Vyasatirtha
Vyasatirtha , also called Vyasaraja or Vyasaraya or Vyasraja swamin, was acclaimed as one of the three spiritual lights or munitrayam of dvaita Vedanta, i.e., Sri Madhvacharya, Sri Jayatirtha and Sri Vyasatirtha. He was a scholar of very high order with a judicious defence of the Dvaita Vedanta...
work Nyāyāmŗta. Madhusūdana also wrote at least nine other works, of which five were commentaries (on the Bhagavadgīta
Bhagavad Gita
The ' , also more simply known as Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata, but is frequently treated as a freestanding text, and in particular, as an Upanishad in its own right, one of the several books that constitute general Vedic tradition...
, part of the Bhāgavatapurāņa
Bhagavata purana
The Bhāgavata Purāṇa is one of the "Maha" Puranic texts of Hindu literature, with its primary focus on bhakti to the incarnations of Vishnu, particularly Krishna...
, and others). He wrote the ISvarapratipatti-prakASa, vedAntakalpalatikA, sArasangraha on sarvajnAtman's samkshepa-SArIraka, and the justly famous siddhAntabindu on SankarAcArya's daSaSlokI.
A total of twenty-one books have been ascribed to Madhusūdana. Of them, nineteen books are undoubtedly his, but the authorship of the remaining two is doubtful. Twelve of his books are on philosophy, the rest are poems, plays and miscellaneous themes. The philosophical books include commentaries.
List of Works
- Advaita-siddhi http://www.archive.org/details/Advaita.Siddhi.by.Madhusudana.Sarasvatihttp://www.advaitasiddhi.org
- Advaita-manjari
- Advaita-ratna-raksana
- Atma-bodha-tika
- Ananda-madakini
- Prasthanabheda http://www.archive.org/details/Prasthanabheda.by.Madhusudana.Sarasvati
- Bhagavad-gita-gudhartha-dipikahttp://www.archive.org/details/SrimadBhagavadGita.With.the.Commentaries
- Vedanta-kalpa-latika http://www.archive.org/details/Vedanta.Kalpalatika.by.Madhusudhana.Sarasvatihttp://www.lalitaalaalitah.com/search/label/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%20-%20%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80
- Sastra-siddhanta-lesa-tika
- Samksepa-sariraka-sara-samgraha
- Siddhanta-tatva-binduhttp://www.archive.org/details/Siddhantabindu.of.Madhusudana.Sarasvati.with.Commentaries
- Pramahamsa-priya http://www.lalitaalaalitah.com/search/label/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%20-%20%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80
- Veda-stuti-tika
- Asta-vikriti-vivarana
- Rajanam-prtibodha
- Isvara-pratipatti-prakasahttp://www.lalitaalaalitah.com/search/label/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83%20-%20%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80]
- Bhagavata-bhakti-rasayana
- Bhagavata-purana-prathamasloka-vakhya
- Krishna-kutuhala-nataka
- Bhakti-samanya-nirupana
- Sandilya-sutra-tika
- Hari-lila-vakhya
Quoteson Madhusudana Saraswati
Madhusūdana was so accomplished in Navya Nyaya (New logic) techniques that the following verse is quoted about him when he visited Navadvipa, the center for learning in Nyaya ShastraNyaya
' is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy—specifically the school of logic...
,
Meaning : When MadhusUdana, the master of speech, came to navadvIpa, MathurAnAtha tarkavAgIsha (who was the foremost navya naiyAyika during those times) trembled (with fear) and GadAdhara (another logician of great repute) became afraid.
A few words about the authors. MadhusUdana sarasvatI is a towering giant among advaitins. An oft quoted verse regarding him is,
Meaning : (Only) the Goddess of Learning, Sarasvati knows the limits of (knowledge of) Madhusūdana Sarasvati. And Madhusūdana Sarasvati knows the limits of (knowledge of) Goddess Sarasvati.
Follower of Bhakti Yoga
Madhusūdana sarasvatI was a great devotee of Lord krishna. Just like Appayya Dikshita, who integrated Sivadvaita into advaita vedantaAdvaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
, madhusūdana bridged the sAtvata school of Pancaratra
Pañcaratra
Pāñcarātra are the Vaishnava Sanskrit texts dedicated to worship of Narayana and form part of the Agamas.Unlike Vaikhanasa tradition, the Pancaratric tradition of Agamas prescribe image worship in the place of rituals like Yajnas, mentioned in the Vedas...
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism is a tradition of Hinduism, distinguished from other schools by its worship of Vishnu, or his associated Avatars such as Rama and Krishna, as the original and supreme God....
and Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
philosophy. It is also interesting to note that madhusUdana boldly differs from Adi Sankara in some of his interpretations of the Brahma Sutras
Brahma Sutras
The Brahma sūtras , also known as Vedānta Sūtras , are one of the three canonical texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. A thorough study of Vedānta requires a close examination of these three texts, known in Sanskrit as the Prasthanatrayi, or the three starting points...
and the gItA, although he salutes Adi Sankara and Suresvara in the most reverential terms. Tradition also recounts that viTThaleSa, the son of vallabhacharya of the Suddhadvaita school, studied under madhusūdana sarasvatI, who thus forms a crucial link between Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta is considered to be the most influential and most dominant sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. Other major sub-schools of Vedānta are Dvaita and ; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda...
and many vaishNava sects in the north.
Relation with Akbar
Madhusūdana Sarasvatī gained as a patron the Emperor Akbar, and was a friend of the poet TulsīdāsTulsidas
Tulsidas , was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama...
. He led many symposia attended by both Hindu
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
sādhus
Sadhu
In Hinduism, sādhu denotes an ascetic, wandering monk. Although the vast majority of sādhus are yogīs, not all yogīs are sādhus. The sādhu is solely dedicated to achieving mokṣa , the fourth and final aśrama , through meditation and contemplation of brahman...
and Muslim
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
mullāhs
Mullah
Mullah is generally used to refer to a Muslim man, educated in Islamic theology and sacred law. The title, given to some Islamic clergy, is derived from the Arabic word مَوْلَى mawlā , meaning "vicar", "master" and "guardian"...
. It is said that on Akbar's suggestion, madhusUdana initiated large numbers of sannyasins from kshatriya
Kshatriya
*For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya, meaning warrior, is one of the four varnas in Hinduism...
and vaishya
Vaishya
Vaishya is one of the four varnas of the Hindu social order. According to Vedic tradition, this caste primarily comprises merchants, farmers, cattle-herders and artisans.-Duties of Vaishyas:...
communities to the dasanami orders
Dashanami Sampradaya
Dashanami Sampradaya is a Hindu monastic tradition of Ekadandisannyasins [1][5][7] generally associated with the Advaita Vedanta tradition...
, in order to form a group of martially trained ascetics to protect the people. This most probably reflects historical fact. Armed nAga sannyAsin warriors, tracing their origins to madhusūdana sarasvatI, and affiliated with the daSanAmI akhADas, were a component of almost every Rajput
Rajput
A Rajput is a member of one of the patrilineal clans of western, central, northern India and in some parts of Pakistan. Rajputs are descendants of one of the major ruling warrior classes in the Indian subcontinent, particularly North India...
army in Northern India, till fairly recent times.
Sources and further reading
- Karl H. Potter, "Madhusūdana Sarasvatī" (in Robert L. ArringtonRobert L. ArringtonRobert L. Arrington is an American philosopher, specialising in moral philosophy, the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, and the philosophy of psychology....
[ed.]. A Companion to the Philosophers. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001. ISBN 0-631-22967-1) - Sarvepalli RadhakrishnanSarvepalli RadhakrishnanSir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , OM, FBA was an Indian philosopher and statesman. He was the first Vice President of India and subsequently the second President of India ....
, et al. [edd], History of Philosophy Eastern and Western: Volume One (George Allen & Unwin, 1952)