Manifesto of the Ninety-Three
Encyclopedia
The "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" is the name commonly given to a 1914 proclamation endorsed by 93 prominent German scientists, scholars and artists, declaring their unequivocal support of German military actions in the early period of World War I
. These actions were elsewhere called the Rape of Belgium
. The Manifesto galvanized support for the war throughout German schools and universities, but many foreign intellectuals were outraged.
A report in 1921 in The New York Times
found that of 76 surviving signatories, 60 expressed varying degrees of regret. Some claimed not to have seen what they had signed.
laureates, artist
s, physician
s, physicist
s, chemist
s, theologians, philosophers, poet
s, architect
s and known college teachers.
N.B.: The italicized names indicate links to articles on German or French Wikipedia.
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
. These actions were elsewhere called the Rape of Belgium
Rape of Belgium
The Rape of Belgium is a wartime propaganda term describing the 1914 German invasion of Belgium. The term initially had a figurative meaning, referring to the violation of Belgian neutrality, but embellished reports of German atrocities soon gave it a literal significance...
. The Manifesto galvanized support for the war throughout German schools and universities, but many foreign intellectuals were outraged.
A report in 1921 in The New York Times
The New York Times
The New York Times is an American daily newspaper founded and continuously published in New York City since 1851. The New York Times has won 106 Pulitzer Prizes, the most of any news organization...
found that of 76 surviving signatories, 60 expressed varying degrees of regret. Some claimed not to have seen what they had signed.
Text
In English translation:Signers
Signers among the 93 included: Nobel PrizeNobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
laureates, artist
Artist
An artist is a person engaged in one or more of any of a broad spectrum of activities related to creating art, practicing the arts and/or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only...
s, physician
Physician
A physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
s, physicist
Physicist
A physicist is a scientist who studies or practices physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena in many branches of physics spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic particles of which all ordinary matter is made to the behavior of the material Universe as a whole...
s, chemist
Chemist
A chemist is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties such as density and acidity. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms...
s, theologians, philosophers, poet
Poet
A poet is a person who writes poetry. A poet's work can be literal, meaning that his work is derived from a specific event, or metaphorical, meaning that his work can take on many meanings and forms. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary...
s, architect
Architect
An architect is a person trained in the planning, design and oversight of the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to offer or render services in connection with the design and construction of a building, or group of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the...
s and known college teachers.
N.B.: The italicized names indicate links to articles on German or French Wikipedia.
List of Signatories
- Adolf von BaeyerAdolf von BaeyerJohann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer was a German chemist who synthesized indigo, and was the 1905 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Born in Berlin, he initially studied mathematics and physics at Berlin University before moving to Heidelberg to study chemistry with Robert Bunsen...
- Peter BehrensPeter BehrensPeter Behrens was a German architect and designer. He was important for the modernist movement, as several of the movements leading names worked for him when they were young.-Biography:Behrens attended the Christianeum Hamburg from September 1877 until Easter 1882...
- Emil Adolf von BehringEmil Adolf von BehringEmil Adolf von Behring was a German physiologist who received the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the first one so awarded.-Biography:...
- Wilhelm von BodeWilhelm von BodeWilhelm von Bode was a German art historian and curator. Born Arnold William Bode in Calvörde, he was ennobled in 1913...
- Aloïs Brandl
- Lujo BrentanoLujo BrentanoLujo Brentano was an eminent German economist and social reformer.Lujo Brentano, born in Aschaffenburg into one of the most distinguished German-Catholic intellectual families , attended school in Augsburg and Aschaffenburg...
- Justus Brinkmann
- Johannes ConradJohannes ConradJohannes Conrad was a German political economist. Johannes Conrad was a Professor of economics in Halle , Prussian Germany. He was a co-founder of the important conservative Verein für Sozialpolitik in 1872...
- Franz von Defregger
- Richard DehmelRichard DehmelRichard Fedor Leopold Dehmel was a German poet and writer.- Life :...
- Adolf Deissmann
- Wilhelm DörpfeldWilhelm DörpfeldWilhelm Dörpfeld was a German architect and archaeologist, the pioneer of stratigraphic excavation and precise graphical documentation of archaeological projects...
- Friedrich von DuhnFriedrich von DuhnFriedrich von Duhn was a German Classical scholar who taught at the University of Heidelberg, where he headed the Institut für Klassische Archäologie ; his most memorable feat was in recognizing scattered fragments of sculpture as the remains of Augustus' Ara Pacis.His masterwork on the funerary...
- Paul EhrlichPaul EhrlichPaul Ehrlich was a German scientist in the fields of hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy, and Nobel laureate. He is noted for curing syphilis and for his research in autoimmunity, calling it "horror autotoxicus"...
- Albert Ehrard
- Carl Engler
- Gerhart Esser
- Rudolf Christoph EuckenRudolf Christoph EuckenRudolf Christoph Eucken was a German philosopher, and the winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize for Literature.-Early life:...
- Herbert EulenbergHerbert EulenbergHerbert Eulenberg was a German poet and author born in Cologne-Mülheim, Germany.-1920s:Eulenberg was the publisher of many books, for which he wrote the introductions. His speech on Schiller, which he wrote in 1909, generated heated debates...
- Henrich Finke
- Hermann Emil FischerHermann Emil FischerHermann Emil Fischer, Emil Fischer was a German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He discovered the Fischer esterification. He developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of drawing asymmetric carbon atoms.-Early years:Fischer was born in Euskirchen, near Cologne,...
- Wilhelm Foerster
- Ludwig FuldaLudwig Fuldathumb|200px|Ludwig FuldaLudwig Anton Salomon Fulda was a German writer and a poet with a strong social commitment.-Biography:...
- Eduard Gebhardt
- J. J. de Groot
- Fritz HaberFritz HaberFritz Haber was a German chemist, who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918 for his development for synthesizing ammonia, important for fertilizers and explosives. Haber, along with Max Born, proposed the Born–Haber cycle as a method for evaluating the lattice energy of an ionic solid...
- Ernst HaeckelErnst HaeckelThe "European War" became known as "The Great War", and it was not until 1920, in the book "The First World War 1914-1918" by Charles à Court Repington, that the term "First World War" was used as the official name for the conflict.-Research:...
- Max HalbeMax HalbeMax Halbe was a German dramatist and main exponent of Naturalism.Halbe was born at the manor of Güttland near Danzig , where he grew up. In 1883 he started to study law at the University of Heidelberg and obtained his doctorate at the University of Munich in 1888...
- Adolf von HarnackAdolf von HarnackAdolf von Harnack , was a German theologian and prominent church historian.He produced many religious publications from 1873-1912....
- Gerhart HauptmannGerhart HauptmannGerhart Hauptmann was a German dramatist and novelist who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1912.-Life and work:...
- Karl Hauptmann
- Gustav HellmannGustav HellmannGustav Johann Georg Hellmann or Georg Gustav Hellmann was a German meteorologist.Hellmann was born in Löwen , Prussian Silesia. Since 1907 to 1922, he was the principal of the Preußischen Meteorologischen Institut in Berlin...
- Wilhelm HerrmannWilhelm HerrmannJohann Wilhelm Herrmann was a Reformed German theologian.Hermann taught at Halle before becoming professor at Marburg. Influenced by Kant and Ritschl, his theology was in the idealist tradition, seeing God as the power of goodness. Jesus was to be seen as an exemplary man. Even if Jesus never...
- Andreas Heusler
- Adolf von HildebrandAdolf von HildebrandAdolf von Hildebrand was a German sculptor,Hildebrand was born at Marburg, the son of Marburg economics professor Bruno Hildebrand. He studied at the Academy of Fine Arts Nuremberg, with Kaspar von Zumbusch at the Munich Academy and with Rudolf Siemering in Berlin...
- Ludwig Hoffmann
- Engelbert HumperdinckEngelbert HumperdinckEngelbert Humperdinck was a German composer, best known for his opera, Hänsel und Gretel. Humperdinck was born at Siegburg in the Rhine Province; at the age of 67 he died in Neustrelitz, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania.-Life:After receiving piano lessons, Humperdinck produced his first composition...
- Leopold Graf von KalckreuthLeopold Graf von KalckreuthLeopold Karl Walter Graf von Kalkreuth was a German painter.A direct descendant of the famous field-marshal Friedrich Adolf Graf von Kalckreuth, Leopold was born at Düsseldorf, received his first training at Weimar from his father, the landscape painter Count Stanislaus von Kalckreuth , and...
- Arthur Kampf
- Fritz-August von Kaulbach
- Theodor Kipp
- Felix KleinFelix KleinChristian Felix Klein was a German mathematician, known for his work in group theory, function theory, non-Euclidean geometry, and on the connections between geometry and group theory...
- Max KlingerMax KlingerMax Klinger was a German Symbolist painter, sculptor, printmaker, and writer.Klinger was born in Leipzig and studied in Karlsruhe. An admirer of the etchings of Menzel and Goya, he shortly became a skilled and imaginative engraver in his own right. He began creating sculptures in the early 1880s...
- Aloïs Knoepfler
- Anton Koch
- Paul Laband
- Karl Lamprecht
- Philipp LenardPhilipp LenardPhilipp Eduard Anton von Lenard , known in Hungarian as Lénárd Fülöp Eduárd Antal, was a Hungarian - German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and the discovery of many of their properties...
- Maximilien Lenz
- Max LiebermannMax LiebermannMax Liebermann was a German-Jewish painter and printmaker best known for his etching and lithography.-Biography:...
- Franz von LisztFranz von LisztFranz Ritter von Liszt was a German jurist, criminologist and international law reformer. As a legal scholar, he was a proponent of the modern sociological and historical school of law...
- Ludwig Manzel
- Joseph Mausbach
- Georg von Mayr
- Sebastian Merkle
- Eduard MeyerEduard MeyerEduard Meyer was a German historian.-Biography:Meyer was born at Hamburg and educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums and later at the universities of Bonn and Leipzig. After completing his studies, he spent one year in Istanbul. In 1879, he went to the University of Leipzig as privatdocent...
- Heinrich Morf
- Friedrich Naumann
- Albert Neisser
- Walther Hermann Nernst
- Wilhem Ostwald
- Bruno PaulBruno PaulBruno Paul was a German architect, illustrator, interior designer, and furniture designer.Bruno Paul was born in Seifhennersdorf, a village in rural Saxony, in 1874. His father was an independent tradesman, craftsman, and dealer in building materials...
- Max PlanckMax PlanckMax Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, ForMemRS, was a German physicist who actualized the quantum physics, initiating a revolution in natural science and philosophy. He is regarded as the founder of the quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.-Life and career:Planck came...
- Albert Plohn
- Georg Reicke
- Max ReinhardtMax Reinhardt----Max Reinhardt was an Austrian theater and film director and actor.-Biography:...
- Alois RiehlAlois RiehlThe philosopher Alois Adolf Riehl was born in Bozen in Austria .The brother of Josef Riehl, he was a Neo-Kantian and worked as a professor at Graz, then Freiburg and finally in Berlin, where he commissioned Mies van der Rohe to design his house in Neubabelsberg.For Riehl, philosophy was not the...
- Karl Robert
- Wilhelm Roentgen
- Max RubnerMax RubnerMax Rubner [ru:bner] was a German physiologist and hygienist.He studied at the University of Munich under Adolf von Baeyer and Carl von Voit . Afterwards he taught as a professor at the University of Marburg and the Robert Koch Institute of Hygiene at the University of Berlin...
- Fritz Schaper
- Adolf von SchlatterAdolf SchlatterAdolf Schlatter was an Evangelical theologian and professor specialising in the New Testament and systematics at Greifswald, Berlin and Tübingen.-Biography:Schlatter, born in St...
- August Shmidlin
- Gustav von SchmollerGustav von SchmollerGustav von Schmoller was the leader of the "younger" German historical school of economics.-Life:Schmoller was born in Heilbronn. His father was a Württemberg civil servant. Young Schmoller studied Staatswissenschaften at the University of Tübingen...
- Reinhold Seeberg
- Martin Spahn
- Franz von Stuck
- Hermann SudermannHermann SudermannHermann Sudermann was a German dramatist and novelist.- Early career :He was born at Matzicken, a village just to the east of Heydekrug in the Province of Prussia , close to the Russian frontier...
- Hans ThomaHans ThomaHans Thoma was a German painter.-Biography:He was born in Bernau in the Black Forest, Germany. Having started life as a painter of clock-faces, he entered in 1859 the Karlsruhe academy, where he studied under Schirmer and Des Coudres...
- Wilhelm TrübnerWilhelm TrübnerWilhelm Trübner was a German realist painter of the circle of Wilhelm Leibl.Trübner was born in Heidelberg and had early training as a goldsmith. In 1867 he met classicist painter Anselm Feuerbach who encouraged him to study painting, and he began studies in Karlsruhe under Fedor Dietz...
- Karl VollmöllerKarl VollmöllerKarl Gustav Vollmöller, usually written Vollmoeller was a German playwright and screenwriter.He is most famous for two works, the screenplay for the celebrated 1930 German film Der Blaue Engel , which made a star of Marlene Dietrich, and the elaborate religious spectacle-pantomime Das Mirakel ,...
- Richard Voss
- Karl VosslerKarl VosslerKarl Vossler was a German linguist and scholar, and a leading Romanist. Vossler was known for his interest in Italian thought, and as a follower of Benedetto Croce. He declared his support of the German military by signing the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three in 1914.-Notes:...
- Siegfried WagnerSiegfried WagnerSiegfried Wagner was a German composer and conductor, the son of Richard Wagner. He was an opera composer and the artistic director of the Bayreuth Festival from 1908 to 1930.-Life:...
- Wilhelm WaldeyerHeinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-HartzHeinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz was a German anatomist, famous for consolidating the neuron theory of organization of the nervous system and for naming the chromosome...
- August von WassermannAugust von WassermannAugust Paul von Wassermann was a German bacteriologist.Born in Bamberg, he studied at several universities throughout Germany, and in 1890 began to work under Robert Koch at the Institute for Infectious Diseases at the Charité in Berlin...
- Felix WeingartnerFelix WeingartnerPaul Felix von Weingartner, Edler von Münzberg was an Austrian conductor, composer and pianist.-Biography:...
- Theodor WiegandTheodor WiegandTheodor Wiegand was one of the most famous German archaeologists.Wiegand was born in Bendorf, Rhenish Prussia. He studied at Munich, Berlin, and Freiburg. In 1894 he worked under Wilhelm Dörpfeld at the excavation of the Athenian Acropolis...
- Wilhelm WienWilhelm WienWilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz Wien was a German physicist who, in 1893, used theories about heat and electromagnetism to deduce Wien's displacement law, which calculates the emission of a blackbody at any temperature from the emission at any one reference temperature.He also formulated an...
- Ulrich von Wilamowitz-MoellendorffUlrich von Wilamowitz-MoellendorffEnno Friedrich Wichard Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff was a German Classical Philologist. Wilamowitz, as he is known in scholarly circles, was a renowned authority on Ancient Greece and its literature.- Youth :...
- Richard WillstätterRichard WillstätterRichard Martin Willstätter was a German organic chemist whose study of the structure of plant pigments, chlorophyll included, won him the 1915 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Willstätter invented paper chromatography independently of Mikhail Tsvet.-Biography:Willstätter was born in to a Jewish family...
- Wilhelm WindelbandWilhelm WindelbandWilhelm Windelband was a German philosopher of the Baden School.Windelband is now mainly remembered for the terms nomothetic and idiographic, which he introduced. These have currency in psychology and other areas, though not necessarily in line with his original meanings...
- Wilhelm WundtWilhelm WundtWilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology"...