Maori seats
Encyclopedia
In New Zealand politics, Māori electorates, colloquially also called Māori seats, are a special category of electorate
that gives reserved positions
to representatives of Māori in the New Zealand Parliament. Consequently, every area in New Zealand
is covered by both a general and a Māori electorate.
Māori electorates were introduced in 1867, with the first Māori elections
held in the following year, during the term of the 4th New Zealand Parliament
. They were intended as a temporary measure and despite numerous attempts to disestablish Māori electorates, they continue to form part of the New Zealand political landscape.
With the introduction of the MMP electoral system after 1993, the rules regarding the Māori electorates changed. Today, the number of electorates floats, meaning that the electoral population of a Māori seat can remain roughly equivalent to that of a general seat. In the first MMP vote (the 1996 election
), the Electoral Commission defined five Māori electorates:
For the second MMP election (the 1999 election
), six Māori electorates existed:
The 2002
and 2005 elections
had seven:
The 2008
and 2011 elections
also had seven:
While seven out of 70 (10 %) does not nearly reflect the proportion of New Zealanders who identify as being of Māori descent (about 18%), many Māori choose to enrol in general electorates, so the proportion reflects the proportion of voters on the Māori roll.
For maps showing broad electoral boundaries, see selected links to individual elections at New Zealand elections
.
Māori Party
co-leader Pita Sharples
has proposed the creation of an additional electorate, for Māori living in Australia, where there are between 115,000 and 125,000 Māori, the majority living in Queensland
.
but in the past such elections took place separately, occurring on different days (usually the day before the vote for general electorates) and having different rules. Historically, less organisation went into holding Māori elections than general elections, and the process received fewer resources. At first, Māori electorates did not even require registration for voting, although later rules changed this. New practices such as paper ballots
(as opposed to casting one's vote verbally) and secret ballot
s also came later to elections for Māori electorates than to general electorates.
The authorities frequently delayed or overlooked reforms of the Māori electoral system, with Parliament considering the Māori electorates as largely unimportant. The gradual improvement of Māori elections owes much to long-serving Māori MP Eruera Tirikatene
, who himself experienced problems in his own election. From the election of 1951
onwards, the voting for Māori and general electorates was held on the same day.
, all early Māori MPs functioned as independents. When the Liberal Party
formed, however, Māori MPs began to align themselves with the new organisation, with either Liberal candidates or Liberal sympathisers as representatives. Māori MPs in the Liberal Party included James Carroll
, Apirana Ngata
and Te Rangi Hīroa. There were also Māori MPs in the more conservative and rural Reform Party
; Maui Pomare
, Taurekareka Henare
and Taite Te Tomo
.
Since the Labour Party
first came to power in 1935
, however, it has dominated the Māori electorates. For a long period this dominance owed much to Labour's alliance with the Ratana
Church, although the Ratana influence has diminished in recent times. In the 1993 election
, however, the new New Zealand First Party, led by the part-Māori Winston Peters
- who himself held the general seat of Tauranga
from 1984 to 2005 - gained the Northern Māori seat (electing Tau Henare
to Parliament), and in the 1996 election
New Zealand First captured all the Māori electorates for one electoral term. Labour regained the electorates in the following election in the 1999 election
.
A development of particular interest to Māori came in 2004 with the resignation of Tariana Turia
from her ministerial position in the Labour-dominated coalition and from her Te Tai Hauāuru
parliamentary seat. In the resulting by-election
on 10 July 2004, standing under the banner of the newly formed Māori Party
, she received over 90 % of the 7,000-plus votes cast. The parties then represented in Parliament had not put up official candidates in the by-election. The new party's support in relation to Labour therefore remained untested at the polling booth.
The Māori Party aimed to win all seven Māori electorates in 2005
. A Marae-Digipoll survey of Māori-rollvoters in November 2004 gave it hope: 35.7 % said they would vote for a Māori Party candidate, 26.3 % opted for Labour, and five of the seven electorates appeared ready to fall to the new party. In the election, the new party won four of the Māori electorates. It seemed possible that Māori Party MPs could play a role in the choice and formation of a governing coalition, and they (surprisingly) conducted talks with the National Party
. In the end they remained in Opposition.
Similarly in 2008
, the Māori Party aimed to win all seven Māori electorates. However, in the election, they managed to increase their four electorates only to five. Although the National government had enough MPs to govern without the Māori Party, it invited the Māori Party to support their minority government on confidence and supply in return for policy concessions and two ministerial posts outside of Cabinet. The Māori Party signed a confidence and supply agreement with National on the condition that the Māori electorates were not abolished unless the Māori voters agreed to abolish them.
with the Māori Representation Act, drafted by Napier
MP
Donald McLean. Parliament passed the Act only after lengthy debate. Many conservative MPs, most of whom considered Māori "unfit" to participate in government, opposed Māori representation in Parliament, while some MPs from the other end of the spectrum (such as James FitzGerald
, who had proposed allocating a third of Parliament to Māori) regarded the concessions given to Māori as insufficient. In the end the setting up of Māori electorates separate from existing electorates assuaged conservative opposition to the bill - conservatives had previously feared that Māori would gain the right to vote in general electorates, thereby forcing all MPs (rather than just four Māori MPs) to take notice of Māori opinion.
Before this law came into effect, no direct prohibition on Māori voting existed, but other indirect prohibitions made it extremely difficult for Māori to exercise their theoretical electoral rights. The most significant problem involved the property qualification - in order to vote, one needed to possess a certain value of land. Māori owned a great deal of land, but they held it in common, not under individual title, and under the law, only land held under individual title could count towards the property qualification. Donald McLean explicitly intended his bill as a temporary measure, giving specific representation to Māori until they adopted European customs of land ownership. However, the Māori electorates lasted far longer than the intended five years, and remain in place today, despite the property qualification for voting being removed in 1879.
The first four Māori members of parliament elected in 1868
were Tareha te Moananui
(Eastern Maori
), Frederick Nene Russell
(Northern Maori
) and John Patterson
(Southern Maori
), who all retired in 1870; and Mete Paetahi
(Western Maori
) who was defeated in 1871. The second four were Karaitiana Takamoana
(Eastern Maori
); Wi Katene
(Northern Maori
); Hori Kerei Taiaroa
(Southern Maori
); and Wiremu Parata
(Western Maori
).
The first Māori woman MP was Iriaka Ratana, who succeeded her late husband Matiu Ratana
in 1949.
In 1902, a consolidation of electoral law prompted considerable discussion of the Māori electorates, and some MPs proposed their abolition. Many of the proposals came from members of the opposition, and possibly had political motivations - in general, the Māori MPs had supported the governing Liberal Party
, which had held power since 1891. Many MPs alleged frequent cases of corruption in elections for the Māori electorates. Other MPs, however, supported the abolition of Māori electorates for different reasons - Frederick Pirani
, a member of the Liberal Party, said that the absence of Māori voters from general electorates prevented "pākehā
members of the House from taking that interest in Māori matters that they ought to take". The Māori MPs, however, mounted a strong defence of the electorates, with Wi Pere
depicting guaranteed representation in Parliament as one of the few rights Māori possessed not "filched from them by the Europeans". The electorates continued in existence.
Just a short time later, in 1905, another re-arrangement of electoral law caused the debate to flare up again. The Minister of Māori Affairs
, James Carroll
, supported proposals for the abolition of Māori electorates, pointing to the fact that he himself had successfully won the general electorate of Waiapu
. Other Māori MPs, such as Hone Heke Ngapua
, remained opposed, however. In the end, the proposals for the abolition or reform of Māori electorates did not proceed.
Considerably later, in 1953, the first ever major re-alignment of Māori electoral boundaries occurred, addressing inequalities in voter numbers. Again, the focus on Māori electorates prompted further debate about their existence. The government of the day, the National Party
, had at the time a commitment to the assimilation of Māori, and had no Māori MPs, and so many believed that they would abolish the electorates. However, the government had other matters to attend to, and the issue of the Māori electorates gradually faded from view without any changes occurring. Regardless, the possible abolition of the Māori electorates appeared indicated when they did not appear among the electoral provisions "entrenched" against future modification.
In the 1950s the practice of reserving electorates for Māoris was described by some politicians "as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa".
In 1976, Māori gained the right for the first time to decide on which electoral roll they preferred to enrol. Surprisingly, only 40 % of the potential population registered on the Māori roll. This reduced the number of calls for the abolition of Māori electorates, as many presumed that Māori would eventually abandon the Māori electorates of their own accord.
When a Royal Commission proposed the adoption of the MMP electoral system in 1986, it also proposed that if the country adopted the new system, it should abolish the Māori electorates. The Commission argued that under MMP, all parties would have to pay attention to Māori voters, and that the existence of separate Māori electorates marginalised Māori concerns. Following a referendum, Parliament drafted an Electoral Reform Bill, incorporating the abolition of the Māori electorates. Both the National Party and Geoffrey Palmer, Labour's leading reformist, supported abolition; but most Māori strongly opposed it. Eventually, the provision did not become law: the Māori electorates came closer than ever to abolition, but survived.
The ACT Party and the National Party have each advocated abolition of the separate electorates. New Zealand First also advocates abolition of the separate electorates but says that the Māori voters should make the decision. National announced in 2008 it would abolish the electorates when all historic Treaty settlements have been resolved, which it aims to complete by 2014.
New Zealand electorates
An electorate is a voting district for elections to the Parliament of New Zealand. In informal discussion, electorates are often called seats. The most formal description, electoral district, is rarely seen outside of electoral legislation. Before 1996, all Members of Parliament were directly...
that gives reserved positions
Reserved political positions
Several politico-constitutional arrangements use reserved political positions, especially when endeavoring to ensure the rights of minorities or preserving a political balance of power...
to representatives of Māori in the New Zealand Parliament. Consequently, every area in New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
is covered by both a general and a Māori electorate.
Māori electorates were introduced in 1867, with the first Māori elections
First Māori elections
The first Māori elections were held in 1868 in four newly formed Māori electorates during the term of 4th Parliament.All subsequent Māori elections were always held as part of the general elections.-History:...
held in the following year, during the term of the 4th New Zealand Parliament
4th New Zealand Parliament
The 4th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand.Elections for this term were held in 61 electorates between 12 February and 6 April 1866 to elect 70 MPs. Parliament was prorogued in late 1870. During the term of this Parliament, two Ministries were in power...
. They were intended as a temporary measure and despite numerous attempts to disestablish Māori electorates, they continue to form part of the New Zealand political landscape.
Organisation
Māori electorates operate much as do general electorates, but have as electors people who are Māori or of Māori descent, and who choose to place their names on a separate electoral roll rather than on the "general roll". Māori electoral boundaries are "superimposed over" the electoral boundaries used for general electorates; thus every part of New Zealand simultaneously belongs both in a general seat and in a Māori seat.Number of electorates
From 1868 to 1996, four Māori electorates existed (out of a total that slowly changed from 76 to 99). They comprised:- Eastern MaoriEastern MaoriEastern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal areas:...
- Northern MaoriNorthern MaoriNorthern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres: Auckland, Whangarei.-Tribal Areas:...
- Southern MaoriSouthern MaoriSouthern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal Areas:...
- Western MaoriWestern MaoriWestern Maori was one of the four former New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal Areas:...
With the introduction of the MMP electoral system after 1993, the rules regarding the Māori electorates changed. Today, the number of electorates floats, meaning that the electoral population of a Māori seat can remain roughly equivalent to that of a general seat. In the first MMP vote (the 1996 election
New Zealand general election, 1996
The 1996 New Zealand general election was held on 12 October 1996 to determine the composition of the 45th New Zealand Parliament. It was notable for being the first election to be held under the new Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, and produced a parliament considerably more diverse...
), the Electoral Commission defined five Māori electorates:
- Te Puku O Te WhenuaTe Puku O Te WhenuaTe Puku O Te Whenua or "the belly of the land" was one of the five new New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates created in 1996 for MMP. It was replaced in the 1999 election.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:...
- Te Tai HauauruTe Tai HauauruTe Tai Hauāuru is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Te Tai Hauāuru is Tariana Turia of the Māori Party...
- Te Tai RawhitiTe Tai RawhitiTe Tai Rawhiti or "the east side" was one of the five new New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates created in 1996 for MMP. It was renamed in 1999 to Ikaroa-Rāwhiti.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:...
- Te Tai TokerauTe Tai TokerauTe Tai Tokerau is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate. Since 2005, it has been held by MP Hone Harawira. A by-election was held in this seat due to Harawira's resignation from Parliament...
- Te Tai TongaTe Tai TongaTe Tai Tonga is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Te Tai Tonga is Rino Tirikatene of the Labour Party, who in 2011 defeated Rahui Katene of the Māori Party, who won the seat in 2008.Te Tai...
For the second MMP election (the 1999 election
New Zealand general election, 1999
The 1999 New Zealand general election was held on 27 November 1999 to determine the composition of the 46th New Zealand Parliament. The governing National Party, led by Prime Minister Jenny Shipley, was defeated, being replaced by a coalition of Helen Clark's Labour Party and the smaller Alliance...
), six Māori electorates existed:
- HaurakiTamaki MakaurauTāmaki Makaurau is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. From 1999 to 2002 the seat was called Hauraki....
- Ikaroa-Rawhiti
- Te Tai HauāuruTe Tai HauauruTe Tai Hauāuru is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Te Tai Hauāuru is Tariana Turia of the Māori Party...
- Te Tai Tokerau
- Te Tai Tonga
- WaiarikiWaiariki (New Zealand electorate)Waiariki is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate.It is currently held by Te Ururoa Flavell MP.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* Tauranga* Whakatane* Rotorua* Taupo-Tribal Areas:...
The 2002
New Zealand general election, 2002
The 2002 New Zealand general election was held on 27 July 2002 to determine the composition of the 47th New Zealand Parliament. It saw the reelection of Helen Clark's Labour Party government, as well as the worst-ever performance by the opposition National Party.Arguably the most controversial...
and 2005 elections
New Zealand general election, 2005
The 2005 New Zealand general election held on 17 September 2005 determined the composition of the 48th New Zealand Parliament. No party won a majority in the unicameral House of Representatives, but the Labour Party of Prime Minister Helen Clark secured two more seats than nearest rival, the...
had seven:
- Ikaroa-Rāwhiti
- TainuiTainui (New Zealand electorate)Tainui was a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate. From the 2008 election the Hauraki-Waikato electorate replaced it.It was held by Nanaia Mahuta MP from 2002 to 2008.-History:...
- Tāmaki Makaurau (roughly equivalent to greater AucklandAucklandThe Auckland metropolitan area , in the North Island of New Zealand, is the largest and most populous urban area in the country with residents, percent of the country's population. Auckland also has the largest Polynesian population of any city in the world...
) - Te Tai HauāuruTe Tai HauauruTe Tai Hauāuru is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Te Tai Hauāuru is Tariana Turia of the Māori Party...
- Te Tai Tokerau
- Te Tai Tonga
- WaiarikiWaiariki (New Zealand electorate)Waiariki is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate.It is currently held by Te Ururoa Flavell MP.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* Tauranga* Whakatane* Rotorua* Taupo-Tribal Areas:...
The 2008
New Zealand general election, 2008
The 2008 New Zealand general election was held on 8 November 2008 to determine the composition of the 49th New Zealand parliament. The conservative National Party, headed by its Parliamentary leader John Key, won a plurality of votes and seats, ending 9 years of government dominated by the social...
and 2011 elections
New Zealand general election, 2011
The 2011 New Zealand general election on Saturday 26 November 2011 determined the membership of the 50th New Zealand Parliament.One hundred and twenty-one MPs were elected to the New Zealand House of Representatives, 70 from single-member electorates, including one overhang seat, and 51 from party...
also had seven:
- Hauraki-Waikato - (North Western North IslandNorth IslandThe North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The island is in area, making it the world's 14th-largest island...
, includes HamiltonHamilton, New ZealandHamilton is the centre of New Zealand's fourth largest urban area, and Hamilton City is the country's fourth largest territorial authority. Hamilton is in the Waikato Region of the North Island, approximately south of Auckland...
and Papakura) - Ikaroa-Rāwhiti - (East and South North IslandNorth IslandThe North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The island is in area, making it the world's 14th-largest island...
, includes GisborneGisborne, New Zealand-Economy:The harbour was host to many ships in the past and had developed as a river port to provide a more secure location for shipping compared with the open roadstead of Poverty Bay which can be exposed to southerly swells. A meat works was sited beside the harbour and meat and wool was shipped...
and MastertonMastertonMasterton is a large town and local government district in the Wellington Region of New Zealand. It is the largest town in the Wairarapa, a region separated from Wellington by the Rimutaka ranges...
) - Tāmaki Makaurau - (Roughly equivalent to greater AucklandAucklandThe Auckland metropolitan area , in the North Island of New Zealand, is the largest and most populous urban area in the country with residents, percent of the country's population. Auckland also has the largest Polynesian population of any city in the world...
) - Te Tai HauāuruTe Tai HauauruTe Tai Hauāuru is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Te Tai Hauāuru is Tariana Turia of the Māori Party...
- (Western North IslandNorth IslandThe North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The island is in area, making it the world's 14th-largest island...
, includes Taranaki and Manawatu-WanganuiManawatu-WanganuiManawatu-Wanganui is a region in the lower half of the North Island of New Zealand, around the cities of Palmerston North and Whanganui. It is administered by the Horizons Regional Council.-Administration:...
regions) - Te Tai Tokerau - (Northernmost seat, includes WhangareiWhangareiWhangarei, pronounced , is the northernmost city in New Zealand and the regional capital of Northland Region. Although commonly classified as a city, it is officially part of the Whangarei District, administered by the Whangarei District Council a local body created in 1989 to administer both the...
and North and West AucklandAucklandThe Auckland metropolitan area , in the North Island of New Zealand, is the largest and most populous urban area in the country with residents, percent of the country's population. Auckland also has the largest Polynesian population of any city in the world...
) - Te Tai Tonga - (All of South IslandSouth IslandThe South Island is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand, the other being the more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman Sea, to the south and east by the Pacific Ocean...
and nearby islands. Largest electorate by area) - WaiarikiWaiariki (New Zealand electorate)Waiariki is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate.It is currently held by Te Ururoa Flavell MP.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* Tauranga* Whakatane* Rotorua* Taupo-Tribal Areas:...
- (Includes TaurangaTaurangaTauranga is the most populous city in the Bay of Plenty region, in the North Island of New Zealand.It was settled by Europeans in the early 19th century and was constituted as a city in 1963...
, WhakataneWhakataneWhakatane is a town in the eastern Bay of Plenty Region, in the North Island of New Zealand, and is the seat of the Bay of Plenty Regional Council. Whakatane is 90 km east of Tauranga and 89 km north-east of Rotorua, at the mouth of the Whakatane River.The town has a population of , with...
, RotoruaRotoruaRotorua is a city on the southern shores of the lake of the same name, in the Bay of Plenty region of the North Island of New Zealand. The city is the seat of the Rotorua District, a territorial authority encompassing the city and several other nearby towns...
, TaupoTaupoTaupo is a town on the shore of Lake Taupo in the centre of the North Island of New Zealand. It is the seat of the Taupo District Council and lies in the southern Waikato Region....
)
While seven out of 70 (10 %) does not nearly reflect the proportion of New Zealanders who identify as being of Māori descent (about 18%), many Māori choose to enrol in general electorates, so the proportion reflects the proportion of voters on the Māori roll.
For maps showing broad electoral boundaries, see selected links to individual elections at New Zealand elections
New Zealand elections
Members of New Zealand's House of Representatives, commonly called "Parliament", normally gain their parliamentary seats through nationwide general elections, or in by-elections. General elections normally occur at least every three years in New Zealand, and operate using the Mixed Member...
.
Māori Party
Maori Party
The Māori Party, a political party in New Zealand, was formed on 7 July 2004. The Party is guided by eight constitutional "kaupapa", or Party objectives. Tariana Turia formed the Māori Party after resigning from the Labour Party where she had been a Cabinet Minister in the Fifth Labour-led...
co-leader Pita Sharples
Pita Sharples
Pita Russell Sharples, CBE, , a Māori academic and politician, currently co-leads the Māori Party. He currently is the member for Tamaki Makaurau in New Zealand's Parliament.-Early life:...
has proposed the creation of an additional electorate, for Māori living in Australia, where there are between 115,000 and 125,000 Māori, the majority living in Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
.
Candidates for Māori electorates, 2008 elections
See Māori electorate candidates, 2008Elections
Elections for Māori electorates occur as part of New Zealand general electionsNew Zealand elections
Members of New Zealand's House of Representatives, commonly called "Parliament", normally gain their parliamentary seats through nationwide general elections, or in by-elections. General elections normally occur at least every three years in New Zealand, and operate using the Mixed Member...
but in the past such elections took place separately, occurring on different days (usually the day before the vote for general electorates) and having different rules. Historically, less organisation went into holding Māori elections than general elections, and the process received fewer resources. At first, Māori electorates did not even require registration for voting, although later rules changed this. New practices such as paper ballots
Ballot
A ballot is a device used to record choices made by voters. Each voter uses one ballot, and ballots are not shared. In the simplest elections, a ballot may be a simple scrap of paper on which each voter writes in the name of a candidate, but governmental elections use pre-printed to protect the...
(as opposed to casting one's vote verbally) and secret ballot
Secret ballot
The secret ballot is a voting method in which a voter's choices in an election or a referendum are anonymous. The key aim is to ensure the voter records a sincere choice by forestalling attempts to influence the voter by intimidation or bribery. The system is one means of achieving the goal of...
s also came later to elections for Māori electorates than to general electorates.
The authorities frequently delayed or overlooked reforms of the Māori electoral system, with Parliament considering the Māori electorates as largely unimportant. The gradual improvement of Māori elections owes much to long-serving Māori MP Eruera Tirikatene
Eruera Tirikatene
Sir Eruera Tihema Te Aika Tirikatene, KCMG was a New Zealand Māori politician of the Ngai Tahu tribe. Known in early life as Edward James Te Aika Tregerthen, he was the first Ratana Member of Parliament and was elected in a by-election for Southern Maori in June 1932 after the death of Tuiti...
, who himself experienced problems in his own election. From the election of 1951
New Zealand general election, 1951
The 1951 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the New Zealand Parliament's 30th term. It saw the governing National Party remain in office, increasing its lead over the opposition Labour Party.-Background:...
onwards, the voting for Māori and general electorates was held on the same day.
Party politics
As Māori electorates originated before the development of political parties in New ZealandPolitical parties in New Zealand
New Zealand national politics feature a pervasive party system. Usually, all members of Parliament's unicameral House of Representatives belong to a political party. Independent MPs occur relatively rarely...
, all early Māori MPs functioned as independents. When the Liberal Party
New Zealand Liberal Party
The New Zealand Liberal Party is generally regarded as having been the first real political party in New Zealand. It governed from 1891 until 1912. Out of office, the Liberals gradually found themselves pressed between the conservative Reform Party and the growing Labour Party...
formed, however, Māori MPs began to align themselves with the new organisation, with either Liberal candidates or Liberal sympathisers as representatives. Māori MPs in the Liberal Party included James Carroll
James Carroll (New Zealand politician)
Sir James Carroll, KCMG , known to Māori as Timi Kara, was a New Zealand politician of Irish and Ngati Kahungunu descent. Beginning his career as an interpreter and land agent, Carroll was elected to the Eastern Maori seat in 1887. He was Colonial Secretary from 1895...
, Apirana Ngata
Apirana Ngata
Sir Apirana Turupa Ngata was a prominent New Zealand politician and lawyer. He has often been described as the foremost Māori politician to have ever served in Parliament, and is also known for his work in promoting and protecting Māori culture and language.-Early life:One of 15 children, Ngata...
and Te Rangi Hīroa. There were also Māori MPs in the more conservative and rural Reform Party
New Zealand Reform Party
The Reform Party, formally the New Zealand Political Reform League, was New Zealand's second major political party, having been founded as a conservative response to the original Liberal Party...
; Maui Pomare
Maui Pomare
Sir Maui Wiremu Pita Naera Pomare, KBE, CMG was a New Zealand doctor and politician, being counted among the more prominent Māori political figures...
, Taurekareka Henare
Taurekareka Henare
Taurekareka Henare was a Māori politician of the Reform Party.-Background and early life:Henare was born at Pipiwai in the Bay of Islands, in 1878 or 1877. His father, Henare Wynyard, was said to be the son of Robert Wynyard, acting governor of New Zealand...
and Taite Te Tomo
Taite te Tomo
Taite Te Tomo was a Māori and Reform Party Member of Parliament in New Zealand.He won the Western Maori electorate in a 1930 by-election after the death of Maui Pomare, but lost it in 1935 to the Ratana candidate Haami Tokouru Ratana....
.
Since the Labour Party
New Zealand Labour Party
The New Zealand Labour Party is a New Zealand political party. It describes itself as centre-left and socially progressive and has been one of the two primary parties of New Zealand politics since 1935....
first came to power in 1935
New Zealand general election, 1935
The 1935 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the New Zealand Parliament's 25th term. It resulted in the Labour Party's first electoral victory, with Michael Joseph Savage becoming the first Labour Prime Minister...
, however, it has dominated the Māori electorates. For a long period this dominance owed much to Labour's alliance with the Ratana
Ratana
The Rātana movement is a Māori religion and pan-tribal political movement founded by Tahupōtiki Wiremu Rātana in early 20th century New Zealand...
Church, although the Ratana influence has diminished in recent times. In the 1993 election
New Zealand general election, 1993
The 1993 New Zealand general election was held on 6 November 1993 to determine the composition of the 44th New Zealand Parliament. It saw the governing National Party, led by Jim Bolger, win a second term in office, despite a major swing back towards the Labour Party. The new Alliance and New...
, however, the new New Zealand First Party, led by the part-Māori Winston Peters
Winston Peters
Winston Raymond Peters is a New Zealand politician and leader of New Zealand First, a political party he founded in 1993. Peters has had a turbulent political career since entering Parliament in 1978. He served as Minister of Maori Affairs in the Bolger National Party Government before being...
- who himself held the general seat of Tauranga
Tauranga (New Zealand electorate)
Tauranga is a New Zealand Parliamentary electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Tauranga is Simon Bridges of the National Party, who won the seat in the 2008 New Zealand general election, after the previous MP, Bob Clarkson of...
from 1984 to 2005 - gained the Northern Māori seat (electing Tau Henare
Tau Henare
Tau Henare is a New Zealand Māori parliamentarian. He served as a Member of Parliament from 1993 to 1999 and returned to Parliament in 2005. He has been involved with four political parties: Mana Motuhake, New Zealand First, Mauri Pacific and the National Party - representing three in...
to Parliament), and in the 1996 election
New Zealand general election, 1996
The 1996 New Zealand general election was held on 12 October 1996 to determine the composition of the 45th New Zealand Parliament. It was notable for being the first election to be held under the new Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, and produced a parliament considerably more diverse...
New Zealand First captured all the Māori electorates for one electoral term. Labour regained the electorates in the following election in the 1999 election
New Zealand general election, 1999
The 1999 New Zealand general election was held on 27 November 1999 to determine the composition of the 46th New Zealand Parliament. The governing National Party, led by Prime Minister Jenny Shipley, was defeated, being replaced by a coalition of Helen Clark's Labour Party and the smaller Alliance...
.
A development of particular interest to Māori came in 2004 with the resignation of Tariana Turia
Tariana Turia
Tariana Turia is a New Zealand politician. She gained considerable prominence during the foreshore and seabed controversy, and eventually broke with her party as a result...
from her ministerial position in the Labour-dominated coalition and from her Te Tai Hauāuru
Te Tai Hauauru
Te Tai Hauāuru is a New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Te Tai Hauāuru is Tariana Turia of the Māori Party...
parliamentary seat. In the resulting by-election
Te Tai Hauauru by-election 2004
The Te Tai Hauauru by-election was a by-election in the New Zealand electorate of Te Tai Hauāuru, one of the Māori seats. The date set for the by-election was 10 July 2004...
on 10 July 2004, standing under the banner of the newly formed Māori Party
Maori Party
The Māori Party, a political party in New Zealand, was formed on 7 July 2004. The Party is guided by eight constitutional "kaupapa", or Party objectives. Tariana Turia formed the Māori Party after resigning from the Labour Party where she had been a Cabinet Minister in the Fifth Labour-led...
, she received over 90 % of the 7,000-plus votes cast. The parties then represented in Parliament had not put up official candidates in the by-election. The new party's support in relation to Labour therefore remained untested at the polling booth.
The Māori Party aimed to win all seven Māori electorates in 2005
New Zealand general election, 2005
The 2005 New Zealand general election held on 17 September 2005 determined the composition of the 48th New Zealand Parliament. No party won a majority in the unicameral House of Representatives, but the Labour Party of Prime Minister Helen Clark secured two more seats than nearest rival, the...
. A Marae-Digipoll survey of Māori-rollvoters in November 2004 gave it hope: 35.7 % said they would vote for a Māori Party candidate, 26.3 % opted for Labour, and five of the seven electorates appeared ready to fall to the new party. In the election, the new party won four of the Māori electorates. It seemed possible that Māori Party MPs could play a role in the choice and formation of a governing coalition, and they (surprisingly) conducted talks with the National Party
New Zealand National Party
The New Zealand National Party is the largest party in the New Zealand House of Representatives and in November 2008 formed a minority government with support from three minor parties.-Policies:...
. In the end they remained in Opposition.
Similarly in 2008
New Zealand general election, 2008
The 2008 New Zealand general election was held on 8 November 2008 to determine the composition of the 49th New Zealand parliament. The conservative National Party, headed by its Parliamentary leader John Key, won a plurality of votes and seats, ending 9 years of government dominated by the social...
, the Māori Party aimed to win all seven Māori electorates. However, in the election, they managed to increase their four electorates only to five. Although the National government had enough MPs to govern without the Māori Party, it invited the Māori Party to support their minority government on confidence and supply in return for policy concessions and two ministerial posts outside of Cabinet. The Māori Party signed a confidence and supply agreement with National on the condition that the Māori electorates were not abolished unless the Māori voters agreed to abolish them.
Establishment
The establishment of Māori electorates came about in 1867 during the term of the 4th Parliament4th New Zealand Parliament
The 4th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand.Elections for this term were held in 61 electorates between 12 February and 6 April 1866 to elect 70 MPs. Parliament was prorogued in late 1870. During the term of this Parliament, two Ministries were in power...
with the Māori Representation Act, drafted by Napier
Napier (New Zealand electorate)
thumb|right|Boundaries of Napier Electorate for 2008 and 2011 electionsNapier is a New Zealand Parliamentary electorate, returning one Member of Parliament to the New Zealand House of Representatives. The current MP for Napier is Chris Tremain, of the National Party. He has held this position since...
MP
Member of Parliament
A Member of Parliament is a representative of the voters to a :parliament. In many countries with bicameral parliaments, the term applies specifically to members of the lower house, as upper houses often have a different title, such as senate, and thus also have different titles for its members,...
Donald McLean. Parliament passed the Act only after lengthy debate. Many conservative MPs, most of whom considered Māori "unfit" to participate in government, opposed Māori representation in Parliament, while some MPs from the other end of the spectrum (such as James FitzGerald
James FitzGerald
James Edward FitzGerald was a New Zealand politician. According to some historians, he should be considered the country's first Prime Minister, although a more conventional view is that neither he nor his successor should properly be given that title. He was a notable campaigner for New Zealand...
, who had proposed allocating a third of Parliament to Māori) regarded the concessions given to Māori as insufficient. In the end the setting up of Māori electorates separate from existing electorates assuaged conservative opposition to the bill - conservatives had previously feared that Māori would gain the right to vote in general electorates, thereby forcing all MPs (rather than just four Māori MPs) to take notice of Māori opinion.
Before this law came into effect, no direct prohibition on Māori voting existed, but other indirect prohibitions made it extremely difficult for Māori to exercise their theoretical electoral rights. The most significant problem involved the property qualification - in order to vote, one needed to possess a certain value of land. Māori owned a great deal of land, but they held it in common, not under individual title, and under the law, only land held under individual title could count towards the property qualification. Donald McLean explicitly intended his bill as a temporary measure, giving specific representation to Māori until they adopted European customs of land ownership. However, the Māori electorates lasted far longer than the intended five years, and remain in place today, despite the property qualification for voting being removed in 1879.
The first four Māori members of parliament elected in 1868
First Māori elections
The first Māori elections were held in 1868 in four newly formed Māori electorates during the term of 4th Parliament.All subsequent Māori elections were always held as part of the general elections.-History:...
were Tareha te Moananui
Tareha te Moananui
Tareha Te Moananui was a Māori member of Parliament in New Zealand. He was one of four Māori elected in 1868 for the new Māori electorates in the New Zealand parliament, and he was the first of the four to speak in Parliament....
(Eastern Maori
Eastern Maori
Eastern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal areas:...
), Frederick Nene Russell
Frederick Nene Russell
Frederick Nene Russell was a Māori member of Parliament in New Zealand. He was one of four Māori elected in 1868 for the new Māori electorates in the New Zealand parliament.He represented the electorate of Northern Maori from 1868 to 1870 when he retired....
(Northern Maori
Northern Maori
Northern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres: Auckland, Whangarei.-Tribal Areas:...
) and John Patterson
John Patterson (New Zealand)
John Patterson was a Māori member of Parliament in New Zealand. He was one of four Māori elected in 1868 for the new Māori electorates in the New Zealand parliamentHe represented the electorate of Southern Maori from 1868 to 1870 when he retired....
(Southern Maori
Southern Maori
Southern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal Areas:...
), who all retired in 1870; and Mete Paetahi
Mete Paetahi
Mete Kingi te Rangi Paetahi was a Member of Parliament in New Zealand. He was one of four Māori elected in first Māori elections of 1868 for the new Māori electorates in the New Zealand parliament.-Private life:...
(Western Maori
Western Maori
Western Maori was one of the four former New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal Areas:...
) who was defeated in 1871. The second four were Karaitiana Takamoana
Karaitiana Takamoana
Karaitiana Takamoana was a Māori member of parliament in New Zealand, and the second Eastern Maori MP.He represented the electorate of Eastern Maori from 1871 to 1879, when he died.-References:...
(Eastern Maori
Eastern Maori
Eastern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal areas:...
); Wi Katene
Wi Katene
Wiremu Katene, known as Wi Katene, was a Māori member of the New Zealand parliament. He was the second MP for Northern Maori.He represented the seat of Northern Maori from 1871 to 1875 when he was defeated; and in 1887 from 9 May to 15 July, when he was again defeated.In November 1872, he was the...
(Northern Maori
Northern Maori
Northern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres: Auckland, Whangarei.-Tribal Areas:...
); Hori Kerei Taiaroa
Hori Kerei Taiaroa
Hori Kerei Taiaroa was a Māori member of the New Zealand parliament and the Paramount Chief of the southern iwi of Ngai Tahu. The son of Ngai Tahu leader Te Matenga and Mawera Taiaroa, he was born at Otakau on the Otago Peninsula in the 1830s or early 1840s.He represented the Southern Maori...
(Southern Maori
Southern Maori
Southern Maori was one of the four original New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal Areas:...
); and Wiremu Parata
Wiremu Parata
Wiremu Te Kakakura Parata, also known as Wi Parata , was a New Zealand politician....
(Western Maori
Western Maori
Western Maori was one of the four former New Zealand Parliamentary Māori electorates, from 1868 to 1996.-Population Centres:The electorate includes the following population centres:* -Tribal Areas:...
).
The first Māori woman MP was Iriaka Ratana, who succeeded her late husband Matiu Ratana
Matiu Ratana
Matiu Rātana , son of Tahupotiki Wiremu Rātana, is a former New Zealand politician and President of the Rātana Church...
in 1949.
Calls for abolition
Ever since the establishment of the Māori electorates, periodic calls have arisen for their abolition. Even at the time of their origin, the electorates aroused much controversy, and given their intended temporary nature, attempts to abolish them arose quickly. The reasoning behind these attempts has varied - some have seen the electorates as an unfair or unnecessary advantage for Māori, while others have seen them as discriminatory and offensive.In 1902, a consolidation of electoral law prompted considerable discussion of the Māori electorates, and some MPs proposed their abolition. Many of the proposals came from members of the opposition, and possibly had political motivations - in general, the Māori MPs had supported the governing Liberal Party
New Zealand Liberal Party
The New Zealand Liberal Party is generally regarded as having been the first real political party in New Zealand. It governed from 1891 until 1912. Out of office, the Liberals gradually found themselves pressed between the conservative Reform Party and the growing Labour Party...
, which had held power since 1891. Many MPs alleged frequent cases of corruption in elections for the Māori electorates. Other MPs, however, supported the abolition of Māori electorates for different reasons - Frederick Pirani
Frederick Pirani
Frederick Pirani was a New Zealand politician. He was Member of the House of Representatives for Palmerston from 1893 to 1902, first as a Liberal, then as an Independent. He was part of the Liberal Party's "left" wing.-Early life:Pirani was born in Melbourne, Australia, and his family emigrated...
, a member of the Liberal Party, said that the absence of Māori voters from general electorates prevented "pākehā
Pakeha
Pākehā is a Māori language word for New Zealanders who are "of European descent". They are mostly descended from British and to a lesser extent Irish settlers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, although some Pākehā have Dutch, Scandinavian, German, Yugoslav or other ancestry...
members of the House from taking that interest in Māori matters that they ought to take". The Māori MPs, however, mounted a strong defence of the electorates, with Wi Pere
Wi Pere
Wi Pere , born Wiremu Pere, was a Māori Member of Parliament in New Zealand. Pere himself was an outstanding figure amongst the Poverty Bay and East Cape Māori, and one of Poverty Bay's most illustrious sons....
depicting guaranteed representation in Parliament as one of the few rights Māori possessed not "filched from them by the Europeans". The electorates continued in existence.
Just a short time later, in 1905, another re-arrangement of electoral law caused the debate to flare up again. The Minister of Māori Affairs
Minister of Maori Affairs
The Minister of Māori Affairs is the minister of the New Zealand government with broad responsibility for government policy towards Māori, the first inhabitants of New Zealand. The current Minister of Māori Affairs is Dr. Pita Sharples.-Role:...
, James Carroll
James Carroll (New Zealand politician)
Sir James Carroll, KCMG , known to Māori as Timi Kara, was a New Zealand politician of Irish and Ngati Kahungunu descent. Beginning his career as an interpreter and land agent, Carroll was elected to the Eastern Maori seat in 1887. He was Colonial Secretary from 1895...
, supported proposals for the abolition of Māori electorates, pointing to the fact that he himself had successfully won the general electorate of Waiapu
Waiapu
Waiapu was a New Zealand parliamentary electorate in the Gisborne – East Coast Region of New Zealand, from 1893 to 1908.-Member of Parliament:...
. Other Māori MPs, such as Hone Heke Ngapua
Hone Heke Ngapua
Hone Heke Ngapuha was a Māori and Liberal Party Member of Parliament in New Zealand. He was born in Kaikohe, and was named after his great-uncle Hone Heke....
, remained opposed, however. In the end, the proposals for the abolition or reform of Māori electorates did not proceed.
Considerably later, in 1953, the first ever major re-alignment of Māori electoral boundaries occurred, addressing inequalities in voter numbers. Again, the focus on Māori electorates prompted further debate about their existence. The government of the day, the National Party
New Zealand National Party
The New Zealand National Party is the largest party in the New Zealand House of Representatives and in November 2008 formed a minority government with support from three minor parties.-Policies:...
, had at the time a commitment to the assimilation of Māori, and had no Māori MPs, and so many believed that they would abolish the electorates. However, the government had other matters to attend to, and the issue of the Māori electorates gradually faded from view without any changes occurring. Regardless, the possible abolition of the Māori electorates appeared indicated when they did not appear among the electoral provisions "entrenched" against future modification.
In the 1950s the practice of reserving electorates for Māoris was described by some politicians "as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa".
In 1976, Māori gained the right for the first time to decide on which electoral roll they preferred to enrol. Surprisingly, only 40 % of the potential population registered on the Māori roll. This reduced the number of calls for the abolition of Māori electorates, as many presumed that Māori would eventually abandon the Māori electorates of their own accord.
When a Royal Commission proposed the adoption of the MMP electoral system in 1986, it also proposed that if the country adopted the new system, it should abolish the Māori electorates. The Commission argued that under MMP, all parties would have to pay attention to Māori voters, and that the existence of separate Māori electorates marginalised Māori concerns. Following a referendum, Parliament drafted an Electoral Reform Bill, incorporating the abolition of the Māori electorates. Both the National Party and Geoffrey Palmer, Labour's leading reformist, supported abolition; but most Māori strongly opposed it. Eventually, the provision did not become law: the Māori electorates came closer than ever to abolition, but survived.
The ACT Party and the National Party have each advocated abolition of the separate electorates. New Zealand First also advocates abolition of the separate electorates but says that the Māori voters should make the decision. National announced in 2008 it would abolish the electorates when all historic Treaty settlements have been resolved, which it aims to complete by 2014.