Marcus Atilius Regulus
Encyclopedia
Marcus Atilius Regulus (born probably before 307 BC
, died (executed) c. 250 BC
), a general and consul
(for the second time) in the ninth year of the First Punic War
(256 BC). Regulus defeated the Salentini
(See also Messapia
) and captured Brundisium (now Brindisi
) during his first term as consul in 267 BC
.
He was one of the commanders in the Roman naval expedition that shattered the Carthaginian
fleet at Cape Ecnomus
, and landed an army on Carthaginian territory. The invaders were so successful that the other consul, Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus
, was recalled to Rome
, leaving Regulus behind to finish the war.
After a severe defeat at Adys
near Carthage, the Carthaginians were inclined towards peace, but the terms proposed by Regulus were so harsh that they resolved to continue the war. The Cathaginians replaced the outmatched general Hamilcar
with new leadership and in 255 BC, Regulus was completely defeated at the Battle of Tunis
. He was taken prisoner by the Sparta
n mercenary general Xanthippus along with 500 of his men.
There is no further trustworthy information about him. According to tradition, he remained in captivity until 250 BC
, when after the defeat of the Carthaginians at the Battle of Panormus
he was sent to Rome on parole
to negotiate a peace or an exchange of prisoners. On his arrival, he instead strongly urged the Roman Senate
to refuse both proposals and continue fighting, and honored his parole by returning to Carthage where he was executed (Horace
, Odes, iii. 5).
Roman writers after Horace record the manner of Regulus' death as either involving his being thrown into a dark dungeon and then dragged out and forced to look at the sun once his eyelids had been cut off (Aulus Gellius
, Attic Nights, vii. 4) or his being encased in a chest lined with spikes (Augustine
, "De Civitate Dei" 1.15, Aurelius Victor
, De Viris Illustribus Romae, 40). Amongst the depictions of the latter version in art is Regulus in the Spiked Cask by Salvatore Rosa, c. 1651.
The traditional story made of Regulus is one of the best known examples of honour
and patriotism
to later Romans; most historians, however, regard this account as insufficiently attested, as Polybius
does not mention it. The tale may have been invented by Roman annalists as propaganda
, to incite hatred towards Carthage and justify cruel treatment of the Carthaginian prisoners.
The eighteenth-century poet Pietro Metastasio found enough admiration for the courage and virtue of Atilius Regulus to craft the libretto Attilio Regolo from his life story. The original operatic setting, composed in 1750 by Johann Adolf Hasse, was followed by other versions.
, descended from an ancient Calabrian family. According to later Roman historians he married one Marcia, who tortured several Carthaginian prisoners to death on hearing of her husband's death. He had at least two sons and one daughter by Livy's account; both sons became consuls - Marcus
in 227 BC and Gaius
in 225 BC (killed in battle against the Gauls).
A brother or cousin, Gaius Atilius Regulus
, served as consul in 257 BC and in 250 BC.
307 BC
Year 307 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Caecus and Violens...
, died (executed) c. 250 BC
250 BC
Year 250 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Regulus and Longus...
), a general and consul
Roman consul
A consul served in the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic.Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. Each consul was given veto power over his colleague and the officials would alternate each month...
(for the second time) in the ninth year of the First Punic War
First Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
(256 BC). Regulus defeated the Salentini
Salento
Salento is the south-eastern extremity of the Apulia region of Italy. It is a sub-peninsula of the main Italian Peninsula, sometimes described as the "heel" of the Italian "boot"...
(See also Messapia
Messapia
Messapia may refer to:* The ancient region occupied by the extinct Messapii tribe* The modern region of Salento, roughly equivalent to the ancient region* Messapia, Greece...
) and captured Brundisium (now Brindisi
Brindisi
Brindisi is a city in the Apulia region of Italy, the capital of the province of Brindisi, off the coast of the Adriatic Sea.Historically, the city has played an important role in commerce and culture, due to its position on the Italian Peninsula and its natural port on the Adriatic Sea. The city...
) during his first term as consul in 267 BC
267 BC
Year 267 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Regulus and Libo...
.
He was one of the commanders in the Roman naval expedition that shattered the Carthaginian
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
fleet at Cape Ecnomus
Battle of Cape Ecnomus
The Battle of Cape Ecnomus was a naval battle, fought off Cape Ecnomus , between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, during the First Punic War...
, and landed an army on Carthaginian territory. The invaders were so successful that the other consul, Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus
Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus
Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus was a patrician who became one of the Roman consuls in both 256 and 250 BC. The term for being consul was one year. Two consuls ruled at a time and one could serve up to two terms. It was the consuls’ job to govern provinces, lead armies in major wars, and run the Senate...
, was recalled to Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, leaving Regulus behind to finish the war.
After a severe defeat at Adys
Battle of Adys
The Battle of Adys was fought in 255 BC between Carthage and a Roman army led by Marcus Atilius Regulus. Regulus inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Carthaginians, who then sued for peace...
near Carthage, the Carthaginians were inclined towards peace, but the terms proposed by Regulus were so harsh that they resolved to continue the war. The Cathaginians replaced the outmatched general Hamilcar
Hamilcar (Drepanum)
Hamilcar was a general who succeeded to the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic War, and after successes at Therma and the Battle of Drepanum was defeated at Ecnomus . Subsequently, apart from unskillful operations against Marcus Atilius Regulus, nothing certain is known of him.He is...
with new leadership and in 255 BC, Regulus was completely defeated at the Battle of Tunis
Battle of Tunis
The Battle of Tunis, also known as the Battle of Bagrades, between the Roman Republic and Carthage occurred in the spring of 255 BC during the First Punic War. The battle ended in a decisive Carthaginian victory.-Prelude:...
. He was taken prisoner by the Sparta
Sparta
Sparta or Lacedaemon, was a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. It emerged as a political entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated the local, non-Dorian population. From c...
n mercenary general Xanthippus along with 500 of his men.
There is no further trustworthy information about him. According to tradition, he remained in captivity until 250 BC
250 BC
Year 250 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Regulus and Longus...
, when after the defeat of the Carthaginians at the Battle of Panormus
Battle of Panormus
The Battle of Panormus was fought in 251 BC between a Roman consular army led by Lucius Caecilius Metellus and Carthaginians led by Hasdrubal during the First Punic War...
he was sent to Rome on parole
Parole
Parole may have different meanings depending on the field and judiciary system. All of the meanings originated from the French parole . Following its use in late-resurrected Anglo-French chivalric practice, the term became associated with the release of prisoners based on prisoners giving their...
to negotiate a peace or an exchange of prisoners. On his arrival, he instead strongly urged the Roman Senate
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
to refuse both proposals and continue fighting, and honored his parole by returning to Carthage where he was executed (Horace
Horace
Quintus Horatius Flaccus , known in the English-speaking world as Horace, was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus.-Life:...
, Odes, iii. 5).
Roman writers after Horace record the manner of Regulus' death as either involving his being thrown into a dark dungeon and then dragged out and forced to look at the sun once his eyelids had been cut off (Aulus Gellius
Aulus Gellius
Aulus Gellius , was a Latin author and grammarian, who was probably born and certainly brought up in Rome. He was educated in Athens, after which he returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office...
, Attic Nights, vii. 4) or his being encased in a chest lined with spikes (Augustine
Augustine of Hippo
Augustine of Hippo , also known as Augustine, St. Augustine, St. Austin, St. Augoustinos, Blessed Augustine, or St. Augustine the Blessed, was Bishop of Hippo Regius . He was a Latin-speaking philosopher and theologian who lived in the Roman Africa Province...
, "De Civitate Dei" 1.15, Aurelius Victor
Aurelius Victor
Sextus Aurelius Victor was a historian and politician of the Roman Empire.Aurelius Victor was the author of a History of Rome from Augustus to Julian , published ca. 361. Julian honoured him and appointed him prefect of Pannonia Secunda...
, De Viris Illustribus Romae, 40). Amongst the depictions of the latter version in art is Regulus in the Spiked Cask by Salvatore Rosa, c. 1651.
The traditional story made of Regulus is one of the best known examples of honour
Honour
Honour or honor is an abstract concept entailing a perceived quality of worthiness and respectability that affects both the social standing and the self-evaluation of an individual or corporate body such as a family, school, regiment or nation...
and patriotism
Patriotism
Patriotism is a devotion to one's country, excluding differences caused by the dependencies of the term's meaning upon context, geography and philosophy...
to later Romans; most historians, however, regard this account as insufficiently attested, as Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
does not mention it. The tale may have been invented by Roman annalists as propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself or one's group....
, to incite hatred towards Carthage and justify cruel treatment of the Carthaginian prisoners.
The eighteenth-century poet Pietro Metastasio found enough admiration for the courage and virtue of Atilius Regulus to craft the libretto Attilio Regolo from his life story. The original operatic setting, composed in 1750 by Johann Adolf Hasse, was followed by other versions.
Family
Atilius Regulus, the son of the eponymous consul of 294 BCMarcus Atilius Regulus (consul 294 BC)
Marcus Atilius Regulus, consul in 294 BC, was the second man from the gens Atilia to become consul of Rome..He succeeded an illustrious plebeian consul Publius Decius Mus who had "devoted himself to the gods," i.e., deliberately thrown himself into the thick of battle after due rituals to ensure...
, descended from an ancient Calabrian family. According to later Roman historians he married one Marcia, who tortured several Carthaginian prisoners to death on hearing of her husband's death. He had at least two sons and one daughter by Livy's account; both sons became consuls - Marcus
Marcus Atilius Regulus (consul 227 BC)
Marcus Atilius M.f. M.n. Regulus , a son of Marcus Atilius Regulus, the consul captured during the First Punic War, and grandson of Marcus Atilius Regulus , was Roman consul for the year 227 BC, together with Publius Valerius Flaccus, and was a consul suffectus in 217 BC, replacing Gaius Flaminius...
in 227 BC and Gaius
Gaius Atilius Regulus (consul 225 BC)
Gaius Atilius M.f. M.n. Regulus was one of the two Roman consuls who fought a Celtic invasion of Italy in 225 BC-224 BC; he however was killed in battle and beheaded...
in 225 BC (killed in battle against the Gauls).
A brother or cousin, Gaius Atilius Regulus
Gaius Atilius Regulus (consul 257 BC)
C. Atilius M. f. M. n. Regulus Serranus was a Roman Republican consul who twice held the consulship in the middle of the 3rd century BC. His elder brother, father, and grandfather were all consuls....
, served as consul in 257 BC and in 250 BC.