Marcus Claudius Marcellus
Encyclopedia
Marcus Claudius Marcellus (ca. 268–208 BC), five times elected as consul
of the Roman Republic
, was an important Roman military leader during the Gallic War of 225 BC and the Second Punic War
. Marcellus gained the most prestigious award a Roman general could earn, the spolia opima
, for killing the Gallic military leader and king Viridomarus
in hand-to-hand combat in 222 BC at the battle of Clastidium. Furthermore, he is noted for having conquered the fortified city of Syracuse in a protracted siege during which Archimedes
, the famous inventor, was killed. Marcus Claudius Marcellus died in battle in 208 BC, leaving behind a legacy of military conquests and a reinvigorated Roman legend of the spolia opima.
, a Roman historian. Plutarch’s collection, titled "Life of Marcellus," focuses on Marcellus’ military campaigns and political life, rather than being a full-life biography, as one might surmise from the title. Plutarch supplies some general information about Marcellus’ youth. Marcellus’ exact birth date is unknown, yet scholars are certain he was born prior to 268 BC because he earned his fifth and final Roman consulship in 208 BC, after he was 60. Marcellus was said to have been the first in his family to take on the cognomen
of Marcellus; yet there are genealogical records of his family line tracing the cognomen all the way back to 331 BC. According to Plutarch, Marcellus was a skilled fighter in his youth and was raised with the purpose of entering military service. Marcellus’ general education may have been lacking. In his youth, Marcellus quickly distinguished himself as an ambitious warrior, known for his skill in hand-to-hand combat. He is noted to having saved the life of his brother, Otacilius, when the two were surrounded by enemy soldiers in Italy
.
As a young man in the Roman army, Marcellus was praised by his superiors for his skill and valor. As a result of his fine service, in 226 BC, he was appointed to the position of curule aedile in the Roman Republic. The position of curule aedile was quite prestigious for a man such as Marcellus. An aedile was an overseer of public buildings and festivals and an enforcer of public order. This is generally the first position one might take in seeking a high political career. The title of curule is quite peculiar because this distinction signifies that that person is a patrician
, or upper classman, rather than a plebeian, or commoner. Marcellus was so highly regarded by his superiors that he was distinguished as a patrician, though technically his family was of the plebeian class. Around the same time that he became an aedile, Marcellus was also awarded the position of augur
, which Plutarch describes as being an interpreter of omens. By about the age of 40, Marcellus had already become an acclaimed soldier and public official. Marcellus’ early career came to a close in 222 BC, at which time he achieved greater historical importance upon his election as consul of the Roman Republic—the highest political office and military position in ancient Rome.
in which Marcellus fought as a soldier, the Gauls
of the North declared war upon Rome in 225 BC. In the fourth and final year of the war, Marcellus was appointed one of the two consul seats, his colleague being Cn. Cornelius Scipio Calvus. The previous consuls had defeated the Insubria
ns, the primary Gallic
tribe involved, all the way up to the Po River
. Following such terrible defeats, the Insubrians surrendered, but Marcellus, not yet consul, persuaded the two acting consuls not to accept the terms of peace. As Marcellus and his colleague were ushered into office as the new consul, the Insurbrians mustered 30,000 of their Gallic allies, the Caesatae, to fight the Romans. Marcellus invaded the Insubrians up to the Po River, just as the previous consuls had done. From here, the Gauls sent 10,000 men across the Po and attacked Clastidium
, a Roman stronghold, to divert the Roman attacks. This battlefield was stage of Marcellus’ confrontation with the Gallic king, Viridomarus, which cemented his place in history.
The confrontation, as told by Plutarch, is so heavy in detail that one might question the veracity of his narration. Plutarch recounts that prior to the battle, Viridomarus spotted Marcellus, who wore commander insignia upon his armor, and rode out to meet him. Across the battlefield, Marcellus viewed the beautiful armor upon the back of the enemy riding toward him. Marcellus concluded that this was the nicest armor, which he had previously prayed would be given by him to the gods. The two engaged in combat whereupon, Marcellus, “by a thrust of his spear which pierced his adversary's breastplate, and by the impact of his horse in full career, threw him, still living, upon the ground, where, with a second and third blow, he promptly killed him.” Marcellus extracted the armor from his fallen foe, upon which he pronounced it as the spolia opima. The spolia opima, meaning "ultimate spoil," is known in Roman history as the most prestigious and honorable prize that a general can earn. Only a general who kills the leader of the opposing army prior to a battle may be honored with taking a spolia opima.
After he had slain the formidable warrior, whom he later learned was the king, Marcellus dedicated the armor, or spolia opima, to Jupiter Feretrius
, as he had promised before the battle. Herein lies a wrinkle in Plutarch’s retelling of the event. When Marcellus first saw the finely dressed warrior, he did not recognize him as a king, but merely a man with the nicest armor. But immediately following the battle, Marcellus prayed to Jupiter Feretrius, saying that he had killed a king or ruler. This inconsistency indicates that Plutarch’s story may have been exaggerated for dramatic effect, causing discrepancies. Furthermore, Plutarch had probably written the account to glorify Marcellus as a hero of Rome, instead of as a record of history.
Following the battle between Marcellus and the king of the Gauls, the outnumbered Romans broke the siege of Clastidium, won the battle and proceeded to push the Gallic army all the way back to their primary headquarters of Mediolanum
. Here, the Romans defeated the Gauls who surrendered themselves to the Romans. The terms between the Romans and Gauls were accepted and the Gallic war ended. Polybius
, a historian of the 2nd century BC, admits that much of the overall success in the Gallic War belongs to Marcellus’ colleague, Scipio, but because Marcellus had won the spolia opima, Marcellus was celebrated triumphantly. Following the Gallic wars, Marcellus seems to drift from the historical radar until the year 216 BC, ushering in the latter part of his life.
, in which he took part in important battles. In the year 216 BC, the third year of the Second Punic War, Marcellus was elected praetor
. A praetor served as either an elected magistrate or as the commander of an army, the latter of which duties Marcellus was selected to fulfill in Sicily. Unfortunately, as Marcellus and his men were preparing to ship to Sicily, his army was recalled to Rome owing to the devastating losses at Cannae
, considered to be one of the worst disasters in the long history of Rome. By the orders of the Senate, Marcellus was forced to dispatch 1500 of his men to Rome to protect the city after the terrible defeat by Hannibal of Carthage
. With his remaining army, along with remnants of the army from Cannae, (who were considered to have been disgraced by the defeat and by surviving it), Marcellus camped near Suessula, a city in the region Campania
of Southern Italy. At this point, part of the Carthaginian army began to make a move for the city of Nola
. Marcellus repelled the attacks and managed to keep the city from the grasp of Hannibal. Although the battle at Nola was rather unimportant in regards to the Second Punic War as a whole, the victory was “important from its moral effect, as the first check, however slight, that Hannibal had yet received.”
Then, in 215 BC, Marcellus was summoned to Rome by the Dictator
M. Junius Pera, who wanted to consult with him about the future conduct of the war. After this meeting Marcellus earned the title of proconsul
. In the same year, when the consul L. Postumius Albinus was killed in battle, Marcellus was unanimously chosen by the Roman people to be his successor. Unfortunately, because the other consul was also a plebeian, the senate would not allow Marcellus to hold the position. Apparently, the senate found bad omens in two plebeian consuls. Marcellus therefore returned to his job as proconsul, whereupon, he defended the city of Nola, once again, from the rear guard of Hannibal’s army. The following year, 214 BC, Marcellus was elected consul yet again, his colleague being Fabius Maximus. For a third time, Marcellus defended Nola from Hannibal and even captured the small but significant town of Casilium.
, the new ruler of the Rome-allied Kingdom of Syracuse, had recently come to the throne upon his grandfather's death and fallen under the influence of the Carthaginian agents Hippocrates and Epicydes
. He then declared war against the Romans after the Carthaginian victory at the Battle of Cannae
. However, Hieronymus was soon deposed; the new Syracusean leaders attempted a reconciliation with Rome but could not quell their suspicions and then aligned themselves with the Carthaginians. In 214 BC, the same year that he was sent to Sicily, Marcellus attacked the city of Leontini, where the two Syracusean rulers were residing. After successfully storming the city, Marcellus had 2000 Roman deserters who were hiding in the city killed, and moved to lay siege to Syracuse itself. At this point, several cities in the province of Sicily rose in rebellion against Roman rule. The siege lasted for two long years, with the Roman effort being thwarted in part by the military machines created by the famous inventor Archimedes
. Meanwhile, leaving the bulk of the Roman legion in the command of Appius Claudius at Syracuse, Marcellus and a small army roamed Sicily, conquering opponents and taking such rebellious cities as Helorus
, Megara
, and Herbessus.
After Marcellus returned and continued the siege, the Carthaginians attempted to relieve the city, but were driven back. Overcoming formidable resistance and the ingenious devices of Archimedes, the Romans finally took the city in the summer of 212 BC. Plutarch wrote that Marcellus, when he had previously entered the city for a diplomatic meeting with the Syracusans, had noticed a weak point in its fortifications. He made his attack at this fragile spot, using a night attack by a small group of hand-picked soldiers to storm the walls and open the gates. During the attack, Archimedes was killed, an act Marcellus regretted. Plutarch writes that the Romans rampaged through the city, taking much of the plunder and artwork they could find. This has significance because Syracuse was a Greek city filled with Greek culture, art and architecture. Much of this Greek art was taken to Rome, where it was one of the first major impacts of Greek influence on Roman culture.
Following his victory at Syracuse, Marcellus remained in Sicily, where he defeated more Carthaginian and rebel foes. The important city of Agrigentum was still under Carthaginian control, though there was now little the Carthaginian leadership could do to support it as the campaigns against the Romans in Spain and Italy now took precedence. At the end of 211 BC, Marcellus resigned from command of the Sicilian province, thereby putting the praetor of the region, M. Cornelius, in charge. Upon his return to Rome, Marcellus did not received the triumphal honours that would be expected for such a feat, as his political enemies objected that he had not fully eradicated the threats in Sicily.
. In control of the Apulian army, Marcellus led many decisive victories against the Carthaginians. First, Marcellus took the city of Salapia and then continued along his way by conquering two cities in the region of Samnium
. Next, when the army of Cn. Fulvius, another Roman general, was completely dismantled by Hannibal, Marcellus and his army stepped in to check the progress of the Carthaginian leader. Then Marcellus and Hannibal fought a battle at Numistro, where a clear victory could not be decided, although Rome claimed victory. Following this battle, Marcellus continued to keep Hannibal in check, yet the two armies never met in a decisive battle.
In the year 209 BC, Marcellus was named proconsul and retained control of his army. During that year the Roman Army
under Marcellus faced Hannibal's forces in a series of skirmishes and raids, without being drawn into open battle. Marcellus defended his actions and tactics in front of the senate and he was named consul for the fifth time for the year 208 BC. After entering his fifth consulship Marcellus re-entered the field and took command of the army at Venusia. While on a reconnaissance mission with his colleague, T. Quinctius Crispinus and a small band of 220 horsemen, the group was ambushed and nearly completely slaughtered by a much larger Carthaginian force of Numidian horsemen. Marcellus was impaled by a spear and died on the field. In the following days, Crispinus died of his wounds.
In the year 23 BC, Emperor Augustus
recounted that Hannibal had allowed Marcellus a proper funeral and even sent the ashes back to Marcellus’ son. The loss of both consuls was a major blow to Roman morale, as the Republic had lost its two senior military commanders in a single battle, while the formidable Carthaginian army was still at large in Italy.
Marcellus played a key role in defeating the Carthaginians and suppressing the rebels in Sicily. Without Marcellus, Rome might have never been able to take Sicily back under control during the Second Punic War. This might have also altered the total outcome of the Second Punic War, for if Carthage retained allies in Sicily, they could spring more attacks on Rome from the island. Most importantly, Syracuse would have never fallen into Roman hands if it were not for Marcellus’ skill and leadership. If Syracuse had not fallen, Sicily would have remained as a constant threat to Rome and could have provided Hannibal with a much needed nearby ally in his Italian campaign.
Marcellus was an important general during the Second Punic War and his five time election as consul has its place in Roman history. His decisive victories in Sicily were of history altering proportions, while his campaigns in Italy itself gave Hannibal himself pause and reinvigorated the Roman Senate
. But it is Marcellus’ triumph as a warrior and winner of a spolia opima
that confirmed his place in ancient Roman history. It is fitting that he became known as the Sword of Rome.
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
, was an important Roman military leader during the Gallic War of 225 BC and the Second Punic War
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
. Marcellus gained the most prestigious award a Roman general could earn, the spolia opima
Spolia opima
Spolia opima refers to the armor, arms, and other effects that an ancient Roman general had stripped from the body of an opposing commander slain in single combat...
, for killing the Gallic military leader and king Viridomarus
Viridomarus
Viridomarus was a Gaulish military leader who led an army against an army of the Roman Republic at the Battle of Clastidium. The Romans won the battle, and in the process, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the Roman leader, earned the spolia opima by killing Viridomarus in single combat....
in hand-to-hand combat in 222 BC at the battle of Clastidium. Furthermore, he is noted for having conquered the fortified city of Syracuse in a protracted siege during which Archimedes
Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an...
, the famous inventor, was killed. Marcus Claudius Marcellus died in battle in 208 BC, leaving behind a legacy of military conquests and a reinvigorated Roman legend of the spolia opima.
Early life: distinguished soldier and politician
Little is known of Marcus Claudius Marcellus’ early years since the majority of biographical information pertains to his military expeditions. The fullest account of Marcellus’ life was written by PlutarchPlutarch
Plutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
, a Roman historian. Plutarch’s collection, titled "Life of Marcellus," focuses on Marcellus’ military campaigns and political life, rather than being a full-life biography, as one might surmise from the title. Plutarch supplies some general information about Marcellus’ youth. Marcellus’ exact birth date is unknown, yet scholars are certain he was born prior to 268 BC because he earned his fifth and final Roman consulship in 208 BC, after he was 60. Marcellus was said to have been the first in his family to take on the cognomen
Cognomen
The cognomen nōmen "name") was the third name of a citizen of Ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. The cognomen started as a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditary. Hereditary cognomina were used to augment the second name in order to identify a particular branch within...
of Marcellus; yet there are genealogical records of his family line tracing the cognomen all the way back to 331 BC. According to Plutarch, Marcellus was a skilled fighter in his youth and was raised with the purpose of entering military service. Marcellus’ general education may have been lacking. In his youth, Marcellus quickly distinguished himself as an ambitious warrior, known for his skill in hand-to-hand combat. He is noted to having saved the life of his brother, Otacilius, when the two were surrounded by enemy soldiers in Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
.
As a young man in the Roman army, Marcellus was praised by his superiors for his skill and valor. As a result of his fine service, in 226 BC, he was appointed to the position of curule aedile in the Roman Republic. The position of curule aedile was quite prestigious for a man such as Marcellus. An aedile was an overseer of public buildings and festivals and an enforcer of public order. This is generally the first position one might take in seeking a high political career. The title of curule is quite peculiar because this distinction signifies that that person is a patrician
Patrician
The term patrician originally referred to a group of elite families in ancient Rome, including both their natural and adopted members. In the late Roman Empire, the class was broadened to include high council officials, and after the fall of the Western Empire it remained a high honorary title in...
, or upper classman, rather than a plebeian, or commoner. Marcellus was so highly regarded by his superiors that he was distinguished as a patrician, though technically his family was of the plebeian class. Around the same time that he became an aedile, Marcellus was also awarded the position of augur
Augur
The augur was a priest and official in the classical world, especially ancient Rome and Etruria. His main role was to interpret the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds: whether they are flying in groups/alone, what noises they make as they fly, direction of flight and what kind of...
, which Plutarch describes as being an interpreter of omens. By about the age of 40, Marcellus had already become an acclaimed soldier and public official. Marcellus’ early career came to a close in 222 BC, at which time he achieved greater historical importance upon his election as consul of the Roman Republic—the highest political office and military position in ancient Rome.
Middle life: the spolia opima
Following the end of the First Punic WarFirst Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
in which Marcellus fought as a soldier, the Gauls
Gauls
The Gauls were a Celtic people living in Gaul, the region roughly corresponding to what is now France, Belgium, Switzerland and Northern Italy, from the Iron Age through the Roman period. They mostly spoke the Continental Celtic language called Gaulish....
of the North declared war upon Rome in 225 BC. In the fourth and final year of the war, Marcellus was appointed one of the two consul seats, his colleague being Cn. Cornelius Scipio Calvus. The previous consuls had defeated the Insubria
Insubria
Insubria is a historical-geographical region which corresponds to the area inhabited in Classical antiquity by the Insubres. Secondarily the name can refer to the Duchy of Milan...
ns, the primary Gallic
Gauls
The Gauls were a Celtic people living in Gaul, the region roughly corresponding to what is now France, Belgium, Switzerland and Northern Italy, from the Iron Age through the Roman period. They mostly spoke the Continental Celtic language called Gaulish....
tribe involved, all the way up to the Po River
Po River
The Po |Ligurian]]: Bodincus or Bodencus) is a river that flows either or – considering the length of the Maira, a right bank tributary – eastward across northern Italy, from a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face...
. Following such terrible defeats, the Insubrians surrendered, but Marcellus, not yet consul, persuaded the two acting consuls not to accept the terms of peace. As Marcellus and his colleague were ushered into office as the new consul, the Insurbrians mustered 30,000 of their Gallic allies, the Caesatae, to fight the Romans. Marcellus invaded the Insubrians up to the Po River, just as the previous consuls had done. From here, the Gauls sent 10,000 men across the Po and attacked Clastidium
Clastidium
Clastidium , was a village of the Anamares, in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 miles east of Iria and 31 miles west of Placentia....
, a Roman stronghold, to divert the Roman attacks. This battlefield was stage of Marcellus’ confrontation with the Gallic king, Viridomarus, which cemented his place in history.
The confrontation, as told by Plutarch, is so heavy in detail that one might question the veracity of his narration. Plutarch recounts that prior to the battle, Viridomarus spotted Marcellus, who wore commander insignia upon his armor, and rode out to meet him. Across the battlefield, Marcellus viewed the beautiful armor upon the back of the enemy riding toward him. Marcellus concluded that this was the nicest armor, which he had previously prayed would be given by him to the gods. The two engaged in combat whereupon, Marcellus, “by a thrust of his spear which pierced his adversary's breastplate, and by the impact of his horse in full career, threw him, still living, upon the ground, where, with a second and third blow, he promptly killed him.” Marcellus extracted the armor from his fallen foe, upon which he pronounced it as the spolia opima. The spolia opima, meaning "ultimate spoil," is known in Roman history as the most prestigious and honorable prize that a general can earn. Only a general who kills the leader of the opposing army prior to a battle may be honored with taking a spolia opima.
After he had slain the formidable warrior, whom he later learned was the king, Marcellus dedicated the armor, or spolia opima, to Jupiter Feretrius
Feretrius
Feretrius is one of the titles of the Roman god Jupiter. In this capacity Jupiter was called upon to witness the signing of contracts and marriages. An oath was taken that called upon Jupiter to strike down the person if they swore the oath falsely....
, as he had promised before the battle. Herein lies a wrinkle in Plutarch’s retelling of the event. When Marcellus first saw the finely dressed warrior, he did not recognize him as a king, but merely a man with the nicest armor. But immediately following the battle, Marcellus prayed to Jupiter Feretrius, saying that he had killed a king or ruler. This inconsistency indicates that Plutarch’s story may have been exaggerated for dramatic effect, causing discrepancies. Furthermore, Plutarch had probably written the account to glorify Marcellus as a hero of Rome, instead of as a record of history.
Following the battle between Marcellus and the king of the Gauls, the outnumbered Romans broke the siege of Clastidium, won the battle and proceeded to push the Gallic army all the way back to their primary headquarters of Mediolanum
Mediolanum
Mediolanum, the ancient Milan, was an important Celtic and then Roman centre of northern Italy. This article charts the history of the city from its settlement by the Insubres around 600 BC, through its conquest by the Romans and its development into a key centre of Western Christianity and capital...
. Here, the Romans defeated the Gauls who surrendered themselves to the Romans. The terms between the Romans and Gauls were accepted and the Gallic war ended. Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
, a historian of the 2nd century BC, admits that much of the overall success in the Gallic War belongs to Marcellus’ colleague, Scipio, but because Marcellus had won the spolia opima, Marcellus was celebrated triumphantly. Following the Gallic wars, Marcellus seems to drift from the historical radar until the year 216 BC, ushering in the latter part of his life.
Later life: Second Punic War
Marcus Claudius Marcellus re-emerged onto both the political and military scene during the Second Punic WarSecond Punic War
The Second Punic War, also referred to as The Hannibalic War and The War Against Hannibal, lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean. This was the second major war between Carthage and the Roman Republic, with the participation of the Berbers on...
, in which he took part in important battles. In the year 216 BC, the third year of the Second Punic War, Marcellus was elected praetor
Praetor
Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities: the commander of an army, usually in the field, or the named commander before mustering the army; and an elected magistratus assigned varied duties...
. A praetor served as either an elected magistrate or as the commander of an army, the latter of which duties Marcellus was selected to fulfill in Sicily. Unfortunately, as Marcellus and his men were preparing to ship to Sicily, his army was recalled to Rome owing to the devastating losses at Cannae
Battle of Cannae
The Battle of Cannae was a major battle of the Second Punic War, which took place on August 2, 216 BC near the town of Cannae in Apulia in southeast Italy. The army of Carthage under Hannibal decisively defeated a numerically superior army of the Roman Republic under command of the consuls Lucius...
, considered to be one of the worst disasters in the long history of Rome. By the orders of the Senate, Marcellus was forced to dispatch 1500 of his men to Rome to protect the city after the terrible defeat by Hannibal of Carthage
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
. With his remaining army, along with remnants of the army from Cannae, (who were considered to have been disgraced by the defeat and by surviving it), Marcellus camped near Suessula, a city in the region Campania
Campania
Campania is a region in southern Italy. The region has a population of around 5.8 million people, making it the second-most-populous region of Italy; its total area of 13,590 km² makes it the most densely populated region in the country...
of Southern Italy. At this point, part of the Carthaginian army began to make a move for the city of Nola
Nola
Nola is a city and comune of Campania, southern Italy, in the province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines...
. Marcellus repelled the attacks and managed to keep the city from the grasp of Hannibal. Although the battle at Nola was rather unimportant in regards to the Second Punic War as a whole, the victory was “important from its moral effect, as the first check, however slight, that Hannibal had yet received.”
Then, in 215 BC, Marcellus was summoned to Rome by the Dictator
Roman dictator
In the Roman Republic, the dictator , was an extraordinary magistrate with the absolute authority to perform tasks beyond the authority of the ordinary magistrate . The office of dictator was a legal innovation originally named Magister Populi , i.e...
M. Junius Pera, who wanted to consult with him about the future conduct of the war. After this meeting Marcellus earned the title of proconsul
Proconsul
A proconsul was a governor of a province in the Roman Republic appointed for one year by the senate. In modern usage, the title has been used for a person from one country ruling another country or bluntly interfering in another country's internal affairs.-Ancient Rome:In the Roman Republic, a...
. In the same year, when the consul L. Postumius Albinus was killed in battle, Marcellus was unanimously chosen by the Roman people to be his successor. Unfortunately, because the other consul was also a plebeian, the senate would not allow Marcellus to hold the position. Apparently, the senate found bad omens in two plebeian consuls. Marcellus therefore returned to his job as proconsul, whereupon, he defended the city of Nola, once again, from the rear guard of Hannibal’s army. The following year, 214 BC, Marcellus was elected consul yet again, his colleague being Fabius Maximus. For a third time, Marcellus defended Nola from Hannibal and even captured the small but significant town of Casilium.
Sicily and Syracuse
Following his triumph at Casilium, Marcellus was sent to Sicily, which Hannibal had set his sights upon. Upon arriving, Marcellus found the island in disarray. HieronymusHieronymus of Syracuse
Hieronymus was a tyrant of Syracuse. He succeeded his grandfather, Hiero II, in 215 BC. He was at this time only fifteen years old, and he ascended the throne at a crisis full of peril, for the battle of Cannae had given a shock to the Roman power, the influence of which had been felt in Sicily;...
, the new ruler of the Rome-allied Kingdom of Syracuse, had recently come to the throne upon his grandfather's death and fallen under the influence of the Carthaginian agents Hippocrates and Epicydes
Epicydes
Epicydes or Epikudês was a Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War.A Syracusan by origin, he was born and educated at Carthage as the son of a Carthaginian mother...
. He then declared war against the Romans after the Carthaginian victory at the Battle of Cannae
Battle of Cannae
The Battle of Cannae was a major battle of the Second Punic War, which took place on August 2, 216 BC near the town of Cannae in Apulia in southeast Italy. The army of Carthage under Hannibal decisively defeated a numerically superior army of the Roman Republic under command of the consuls Lucius...
. However, Hieronymus was soon deposed; the new Syracusean leaders attempted a reconciliation with Rome but could not quell their suspicions and then aligned themselves with the Carthaginians. In 214 BC, the same year that he was sent to Sicily, Marcellus attacked the city of Leontini, where the two Syracusean rulers were residing. After successfully storming the city, Marcellus had 2000 Roman deserters who were hiding in the city killed, and moved to lay siege to Syracuse itself. At this point, several cities in the province of Sicily rose in rebellion against Roman rule. The siege lasted for two long years, with the Roman effort being thwarted in part by the military machines created by the famous inventor Archimedes
Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an...
. Meanwhile, leaving the bulk of the Roman legion in the command of Appius Claudius at Syracuse, Marcellus and a small army roamed Sicily, conquering opponents and taking such rebellious cities as Helorus
Helorus
Helorus, Heloros, Helorum, or Elorus , was an ancient city of Sicily, situated near the east coast, about 40 km south of Syracuse and on the banks of the river of the same name...
, Megara
Megara
Megara is an ancient city in Attica, Greece. It lies in the northern section of the Isthmus of Corinth opposite the island of Salamis, which belonged to Megara in archaic times, before being taken by Athens. Megara was one of the four districts of Attica, embodied in the four mythic sons of King...
, and Herbessus.
After Marcellus returned and continued the siege, the Carthaginians attempted to relieve the city, but were driven back. Overcoming formidable resistance and the ingenious devices of Archimedes, the Romans finally took the city in the summer of 212 BC. Plutarch wrote that Marcellus, when he had previously entered the city for a diplomatic meeting with the Syracusans, had noticed a weak point in its fortifications. He made his attack at this fragile spot, using a night attack by a small group of hand-picked soldiers to storm the walls and open the gates. During the attack, Archimedes was killed, an act Marcellus regretted. Plutarch writes that the Romans rampaged through the city, taking much of the plunder and artwork they could find. This has significance because Syracuse was a Greek city filled with Greek culture, art and architecture. Much of this Greek art was taken to Rome, where it was one of the first major impacts of Greek influence on Roman culture.
Following his victory at Syracuse, Marcellus remained in Sicily, where he defeated more Carthaginian and rebel foes. The important city of Agrigentum was still under Carthaginian control, though there was now little the Carthaginian leadership could do to support it as the campaigns against the Romans in Spain and Italy now took precedence. At the end of 211 BC, Marcellus resigned from command of the Sicilian province, thereby putting the praetor of the region, M. Cornelius, in charge. Upon his return to Rome, Marcellus did not received the triumphal honours that would be expected for such a feat, as his political enemies objected that he had not fully eradicated the threats in Sicily.
Death in battle
The final period of Marcus Claudius Marcellus’ life began with his fourth election to Roman consul in 210 BC. Marcellus’ election to office sparked much controversy and resentment towards Marcellus because of accusations by political opponents that his actions in Sicily were excessively brutal. Representatives of Sicilian cities presented themselves before the senate to complain about Marcellus past actions. The complaints prevailed and Marcellus was forced to switch control of provinces with his colleague so that Marcellus was not the consul in control of Sicily. Upon switching provinces, Marcellus took command of the Roman army in the region of ApuliaApulia
Apulia is a region in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its most southern portion, known as Salento peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy. The region comprises , and...
. In control of the Apulian army, Marcellus led many decisive victories against the Carthaginians. First, Marcellus took the city of Salapia and then continued along his way by conquering two cities in the region of Samnium
Samnium
Samnium is a Latin exonym for a region of south or south and central Italy in Roman times. The name survives in Italian today, but today's territory comprising it is only a small portion of what it once was. The populations of Samnium were called Samnites by the Romans...
. Next, when the army of Cn. Fulvius, another Roman general, was completely dismantled by Hannibal, Marcellus and his army stepped in to check the progress of the Carthaginian leader. Then Marcellus and Hannibal fought a battle at Numistro, where a clear victory could not be decided, although Rome claimed victory. Following this battle, Marcellus continued to keep Hannibal in check, yet the two armies never met in a decisive battle.
In the year 209 BC, Marcellus was named proconsul and retained control of his army. During that year the Roman Army
Roman army
The Roman army is the generic term for the terrestrial armed forces deployed by the kingdom of Rome , the Roman Republic , the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine empire...
under Marcellus faced Hannibal's forces in a series of skirmishes and raids, without being drawn into open battle. Marcellus defended his actions and tactics in front of the senate and he was named consul for the fifth time for the year 208 BC. After entering his fifth consulship Marcellus re-entered the field and took command of the army at Venusia. While on a reconnaissance mission with his colleague, T. Quinctius Crispinus and a small band of 220 horsemen, the group was ambushed and nearly completely slaughtered by a much larger Carthaginian force of Numidian horsemen. Marcellus was impaled by a spear and died on the field. In the following days, Crispinus died of his wounds.
In the year 23 BC, Emperor Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
recounted that Hannibal had allowed Marcellus a proper funeral and even sent the ashes back to Marcellus’ son. The loss of both consuls was a major blow to Roman morale, as the Republic had lost its two senior military commanders in a single battle, while the formidable Carthaginian army was still at large in Italy.
Historical significance
Marcus Claudius Marcellus winning of the spolia opima earned him great fame in his lifetime. The spolia opima was one of the highest honors that could be bestowed upon a Roman general. Plutarch informs how the spolia opima was acquired. He stated that, “only those spoils are ‘opima’ which are taken first, in a pitched battle, where general slays general.” Only two others in Roman history, Romulus, the founder of Rome, and Aulus Cornelius Cossus, were allegedly honored with this prize. Marcellus is the only one of the three whose achievement has been historically confirmed. In terms of the history of the spolia opima, Marcellus holds great significance because he reinvigorated the meaning of the honored prize. Prior to Marcellus, the spolia opima was not of special importance in the minds of Romans because it had happened only twice before, if at all. Furthermore, the actual ritual of the spolia opima was not confirmed until Marcellus made it customary to dedicate the armor to Jupiter Feretrius. No one else accomplished the same feat to continue the tradition. In this way, Marcellus publicized the winning of the spolia opima and turned it into a legend.Marcellus played a key role in defeating the Carthaginians and suppressing the rebels in Sicily. Without Marcellus, Rome might have never been able to take Sicily back under control during the Second Punic War. This might have also altered the total outcome of the Second Punic War, for if Carthage retained allies in Sicily, they could spring more attacks on Rome from the island. Most importantly, Syracuse would have never fallen into Roman hands if it were not for Marcellus’ skill and leadership. If Syracuse had not fallen, Sicily would have remained as a constant threat to Rome and could have provided Hannibal with a much needed nearby ally in his Italian campaign.
Marcellus was an important general during the Second Punic War and his five time election as consul has its place in Roman history. His decisive victories in Sicily were of history altering proportions, while his campaigns in Italy itself gave Hannibal himself pause and reinvigorated the Roman Senate
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
. But it is Marcellus’ triumph as a warrior and winner of a spolia opima
Spolia opima
Spolia opima refers to the armor, arms, and other effects that an ancient Roman general had stripped from the body of an opposing commander slain in single combat...
that confirmed his place in ancient Roman history. It is fitting that he became known as the Sword of Rome.