Marine Corps Test Unit
Encyclopedia
The Marine Corps Test Unit 1, or MCTU #1, was an experimental testing unit of the United States Marine Corps
. It was established outside the Fleet Marine Force
for the development of specialized tactics, techniques and organizational concepts, and to evaluate its tangible employment in the nuclear age
. It reported directly to the Commandant of the Marine Corps
.
:
to end World War II
demonstrated the threat of nuclear warfare
. In December 1946, Marine Corps instructor Colonel Robert E. Cushman, Jr.
wrote an extensive staff report to then-Marine Commandant
Alexander Vandegrift about feasible massive amphibious landings over small areas subject to potential tactical nuclear weapon
s. He envisioned that the Marine Corps
could no longer imagine small-scale operations, recommending the planning for greater mobility and dispersion, and focus entirely on operating more inland from the sea:
It was not until 1951, after the Korean War
had commenced, that the Marine Corps began to develop heliborne experience in the battlefield when they used helicopter
s to rapidly transport companies and battalions into the combat zone. However the Marines Corps didn't have enough helicopters nor the individual helicopter lift capability at that time to employ the tactics needed to implement Colonel Cushman's concept of dispersion.
Marine Commandant
Lemuel Shepherd
's staff realized the Marine Corps was in need of a test unit outside the operationally committed Fleet Marine Force
to develop special tactics, techniques and organizational concepts for the nuclear age; however, it had to remain under operational control of the Commandant of the Marine Corps. On 1 July 1955, Commandant Shepherd approved his staff's recommendation and activated Marine Corps Test Unit #1, near Basilone Road at Camp Horno on MCB Camp Pendleton
.
(FMFPac) and disbanded its colors. 1st Force Reconnaissance Company
was activated on 19 June 1957 with Bruce F. Meyers as its first Commanding Officer. Captain Joseph Z. Taylor was his executive officer. Although the MCTU #1 no longer existed, Major Meyers continued to pursue more unique methods in insertion capabilities.
(XO) over a command of 104 Marine officers, 1,412 enlisted, 7 Navy doctors and 51 Hospital Corpsmen
, and one chaplain
.
The MCTU #1 initially began as a regimental-sized
unit with a Headquarters and Service Company
; one infantry
battalion
consisting of four companies
; one 75mm anti-tank platoon
; one 4.2-inch mortar
platoon; one 75mm pack howitzer
artillery battery
. The Test Unit's Operations (S-3) officer was Major Dewey "Bob" Bohn.
The Infantry Battalion was commanded by Lt. Colonel Stanley Nelson, with Major Willmar "Bill" Bledsoe as the executive officer. It was assigned to test the feasibility of conducting major 'helicopter' landing assaults
projected from the sea. Similarly, amphib recon Marines
tested the usage of submarine
s for coastal projection during World War II
.
A Plans and Development (P&D) Section was formed on April 1955 to evaluate the trials and tests of the Infantry Battalion and other subordinated unit's experiments with MCTU #1. Major Bruce F. Meyers reported for duty and was initially was assigned as the assistant operations officer of the Infantry Battalion. He was subsequently redesignated as the Helicopter Assault Airborne Techniques Officer.
By September 1955, the Reconnaissance Platoon, commanded by Captain Joseph Z. Taylor, was added to resolve the amphibious reconnaissance
role in the Fleet Marine Force. It was also tasked to bring the past force-level
preliminary amphib recon methods of World War II
towards a modern approach that included parachute insertions
and helicopter capabilities.
An air element of a medium helicopter squadron was augmented with three observation helicopters and an additional six Grumman F9F-2 Panthers
to support MCTU #1 during its research and development. A Marine Air Wing element was attached along with administrative and logistic support at the request from nearby MCAS El Toro
.
Around late May in 1957, MCTU #1 finalized all their reports summarizing the last two years of the heliborne assault exercises, nuclear weapons testing, and the recon platoon's parachute reconnaissance and pathfinding experiments into a sixty-page after-action report archived as "Test Project 6H". By early June, the recon platoon received the last remaining jumpers from MCTU #1 and were adjoined by several more recon Marines from the 1st Marine Division Recon Company
that became jump qualified.
On 18 June 1957, the Recon Platoon from the Test Unit was disbanded and reported to 1st Marine Division, FMF, then to its Headquarters Battalion to assume command of the 1st Amphibious Reconnaissance Company
. Major Bruce F. Meyers relieved Captain Michael Spark, who was later killed in the Vietnam War
and awarded the Navy Cross
. The next day on 19 June 1957, the newly assembled 1st Amphib Recon Company was dissolved, casing its colors for the establishment of 1st Force Reconnaissance Company
, Fleet Marine Force.
A significant figure that revolutionized the modern scope of the Marine Corps reconnaissance doctrine was (then-) Captain Bruce F. Meyers. Prior to his assignment with the test unit, Meyers was a combat swimming instructor and also the officer-in-charge (OIC) of the Amphibious Reconnaissance School, NAB Coronado
for 35 months. During his tenure as OIC, he began to develop innovative ideas of deeper parachute insertion methods from aircraft projected from aircraft carrier
s. He figured if the aircraft could slow down enough to land on carriers, then they could slow sufficiently for parachutists to exit and deploy their parachutes.
Meyers took this 'parachute entry' concept to Brig. General Lewis "Chesty" Puller
, who requested that Meyers write a letter to the Commandant, outlining the plans and thoughts on deeper reconnaissance and pathfinding. With Chesty Puller's endorsement, the Commandant directed Meyers to attend parachutists schools. Meyers spent two weeks on Temporary Additional Duty orders to the Naval Parachute Loft on NAS North Island
, then was sent to Fort Benning
for one year with the United States Army
service schools to attend the Army Advanced Infantry School
, and the parachute and jumpmaster courses. Upon completion, he was directed to report to the CO of the Marine Corps Test Unit #1 to test his ideas of deep parachute entry in use with reconnaissance. Major Bruce F. Meyers reported to MCTU #1 in early April 1955 and was immediately assigned as the assistant operations officer.
By May 1955, Major Meyers was reassigned to the P&D as the "Reconnaissance/Pathfinder Project Officer", until his title was initially changed to "Helicopter Assault Airborne Techniques Officer" to reflect the test unit's heliborne capabilities within the infantry battalion; his duties remained the same despite the title change. After setting up the Standard Operating Procedure for Test Unit 1, Major Meyers and the Test Unit's executive officer, LtCol. Fuller, prepared a detailed recommendation to their commanding officer, Col. Rydalch, and to the Commandant for approval of forming and training a reconnaissance platoon for MCTU #1.
companies and was created to be employed exclusively in the training, testing, and exercises designed to validate reconnaissance theories and techniques of an all-helicopter assault. These were applied to the higher levels in the echelon in addition to use at the battalion or regimental landing team-level. This recon platoon subsequently became the pivotal beginning of the existing deep recon assets that are maintained at Fleet Marine Force-level
.
The Test Unit's executive officer, Lt. Colonel Fuller, personally requested Captain Joseph Z. Taylor, a recon company commander with 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion
, to be the recon platoon commander. Taylor had served under LtCol. Fuller back in 1950 when Fuller was the commanding officer of 2nd Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion
on MCB Camp Lejeune
.
Taylor recently returned from reconnaissance exercise (RECONEX) 551 at Iwo Jima
aboard the USS Perch
(ASPP-313) with 3rd Recon Battalion. This allowed Taylor to bring fresh submarine
and rubber raft
experiences to the Test Unit's experimental recon platoon.
LtCol. Regan Fuller tasked both Bruce Meyers and Joseph Taylor to seek new innovative ways in finding practical new aircraft, equipment, and methods to enhance and develop the emerging deep reconnaissance capability in the Marine Corps.
helicopters in repetitive troop exercises, making the battalion fully capable of being helicopter transportable by following spring.
On March 22, 1955, the Infantry Battalion of MCTU #1 was temporary assigned to the 3rd Marine Corps Provisional Atomic Exercise Brigade, or 3rd MCPAEB, to participate in Exercise Desert Rock VI - codenamed Operation TEAPOT
. Operation TEAPOT was a series of tactical nuclear weapon
s tests with active nuclear warheads conducted by the United States Atomic Energy Commission
at the Nevada Test Site
. The battalion and its detached aviation elements were involved in Shot 'Bee'.
A nuclear weapon was detonated simultaneously as the Infantry Battalion maneuvered within 3500 yard away from ground zero
, acting as an amphibious battalion landing force in the vicinity of a nuclear fallout
. Close air support
was used, targeting the helicopter Landing Zone
s ninety seconds before the Marines were set down. While the Marines were advancing, the mushroom cloud
was still forming above. The battalion simulated their attacks through a buildup of mock trenches and facilities made to resemble an urbanized city
.
Exercise Desert Rock VI also concluded tests in the effects of the atomic blast on their equipment and Marines on the ground. Equipment and mannequins were placed in different locations of varying distances from ground zero, all displayed in different degrees of protection. After the detonation and fallout cleared, the Marines from the Infantry Battalion, Marine Corps Test Unit #1, were taken and shown the effects of their equipment and mannequins. The after-action report with the photographs that were taken before and after photographs revealed that their tanks had turrets blown off, amphibious tracked vehicles
were turned upside-down, and the mannequins in the open were vaporized. However, the distance from ground zero and the additional level of protection proved noteworthy. The tactical exercise that they had successfully demonstrated gave the Marine Corps a survivability estimate and an appreciation for the atomic power of nuclear weapons.
training to hone their skills, as well as basic and advanced amphibious recon
training that was set up through the liaison at the Amphibious Reconnaissance School, Troop Training Unit, Pacific (TTUPac) on NAB Coronado
. Another training liaison was established with the Commander of the Naval Air Force, US Pacific Fleet, or COMNAVAIRPAC, at NAS North Island in enrolling the recon platoon into the Navy's
SERE School and the USAF's
Escape and Evasion (E&E) course; originally designed for aviation pilots that faced the possibility of being shot over enemy territory down during conflicts. It became a reasonable conclusion that reconnaissance Marines would be operating deep behind enemy lines and would require such training. After MCTU #1 had been dissolved, the 1st Force Recon Company
continued to experiment in newer innovative means in projecting and recovering their recon Marine operators from behind enemy lines safely and efficiently.
The MCTU #1 participated in major exercises with the first assembled Marine Air-Ground Task Force
during Air-Ground Landing Exercise 57-I (AGLEX 57-I) in December 1957, and Operation SKI JUMP in January 1957. During Operation SKI JUMP, the Reconnaissance Platoon were to provide pre-D-Day reconnaissance, and later pathfinding, for the upcoming helicopter assault waves. Thirty days prior to the scheduled landing, or D-Day minus thirty (D-30), the recon platoon was divided into two separate reconnaissance teams and parachuted into two separated drop zones to reconnoiter the planned helicopter Landing Dones. A simulated nuclear weapon was to be detonated between the two helicopter Landing Zones at 0810 the same day, prior to the planned pathfinder drop and following after helicopter landings of a battalion of Marines. The mock atomic bomb was made of 55 US gal (208.2 l) barrels of napalm
buried into the ground. The pathfinder teams were scheduled to parachute to their respective drop zones, DZ Yellow and DZ Red, at 0815.
Three parachutist Marines were killed during SKI JUMP on January 17 at Case Springs, a high plateau and wooded area on Camp Pendleton. Severe winds suddenly appeared while the parachutists were in their descent. Corporal Ben Simpson and PFC Matthew J. O'Neill Jr., were dragged over 1000 ft (304.8 m). They were found dead by Major Bruce Meyers, their skulls were crushed and helmets gone due to the forcible drag. Lieutenant Kenneth Ball, the jumpmaster in the stick, was knocked unconscious and wasn't able to attempt the quick-release; he later died at the Camp Pendleton hospital from multiple intrusions. The Marines in the Recon Platoon were using the standard military-issued T-10 parachutes. One of the findings were that the T-10 safety "quick-release" on the front of the harness made it quite impossible to detach in case of emergencies, even after frequent practice by the parachutists. Dirt and small rocks fouled the quick-releases while the harnesses were dragged at 15 miles per hour (24.1 km/h) over the ground, making them ineffective.
The Board of Investigations concluded that improvements to their parachutists and equipment were to be provided. Chief Warrant Officer
Lewis "Lew" T. Vinson suggested that the Capewell canopy release
be installed on all the Marines' parachutes, static-line or free-fall, to permit the jumper to get out of the harness if caught in a drag. Later, the Army
Parachute Boards came to the same conclusion at Fort Benning
and Fort Bragg
. Six Army parachutists had been recently killed at Fort Bragg in the same manner as the unfortunate Marines at Case Springs. Because of these deaths, it led to the recommendation and requirement of adopting the Capewell release for all the services involved in parachuting.
at Fort Benning
, Georgia
. However, Bruce Meyers was the only Marine within MCTU #1 that had parachutist experience and qualifications and recognized the perils of not being prepared for airborne school. Through their recommendation, Meyers and Taylor were enabled to construct its own 'pre-jump school' to prepare Marines for the course; this prevented the loss of Marines that became unqualified due to the Test Unit's training quota.
Captain Taylor managed to get the services of Sergeant Robert Zweiner, a parachute rigger
from an Air Delivery Platoon at the nearby airstrip on Camp Pendleton
. Sgt. Zweiner led a grueling course, instructing the Marines in Parachute Landing Fall
s (PLFs), body positioning and positive exits from aircraft. All of them were able to pass the pull-up physicals and complete the long runs; by the time the Test Unit's recon Marines were sent to the actual school, they were well-prepared and everyone passed the course, each earning their silver wings and returning to MCTU #1. Robert Zweiner was quickly reassigned and transferred to MCTU #1 to head the test unit's newly formed Parachute Loft, becoming the founder of 1st Force Reconnaissance Company
's Paraloft.
Although all the Marines assigned to the Test Unit's recon platoon were now low-level static line
qualified, Major Bruce Meyers was still, however, the only Marine in MCTU #1 with free-fall experience. Meyers's next objective were to turn the majority of Marines in the recon platoon to become also free-fall qualified.
Once again, Meyers set up training with a training liaison to send a bulk of the platoon on temporary additional duty on 1 July 1956 to the Naval Parachute Unit (NPU) at Naval Auxiliary Air Station
in El Centro, California
. Under the instructions of a very highly qualified Navy jumpmaster
, Chief Warrant Officer Lewis "Lew" T. Vinsen, introduced the art of free-falling to the recon platoon. Due to the free exchange and cross-training cooperation in these efforts, on one occasion, Air Force
Captain Joseph Kittinger
from Wright Patterson Test Center
jumped several times with the Marines of Recon Platoon, Marine Corps Test Unit #1. Capt. Kittinger later made, and still holds, the world-record for the highest free-fall parachute jump from the gondola of a high-altitude balloon.
The recon Marines would jump on average two- to three-times daily testing various types of parachutes, which soon became apparent by both MCTU #1 and NPU that the Marine should also try to become 'navy test parachutists' due to the increased sophisticated and variant types of free-fall jumps the recon Marines were experimenting. By the next year, Major Bruce Meyers, Captain Joe Taylor, Sergeant Robert Zweiner and several others of the 'more-qualified' Marines parachutists within the test unit's recon platoon subsequently became qualified as "Naval Test Parachutists" after completing the twenty-two jump syllabus.
In the realization of the increasingly sophisticated parachute jumps, jumpmaster
s were assigned to oversee the overall conduct of the jumps performed. The most important aspect of this training was the jumpmaster's judgment, determining the exit points that would best get his Marines into the LZ, and to judge the winds appropriately both on the ground and aloft. Eventually, all the staff non-commissioned officers were jumpmaster qualified after five jumps as Assistant Jumpmasters.
were to expand its capability in jumping from carrier-based aircraft
. The jump logs for MCTU #1 and the first twenty months of 1st Force Recon has shown various types of parachutes and different carrier-based aircraft that had been experimented in finding alternative methods parachute entry, such as the Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars
, Douglas R4D-6 Skytrains
, Lockheed P2V Neptunes
, L-2 Beavers
, AJ-2 Savages
, F3D-2 Skyknights
, TF-1 Trader
and A-3 Skywarrior
s.
Beginning in May 1956, Major Bruce, Captain Taylor and Sergeant Zweiner headed to the Air Transport Squadron Five
(VR-5) at NAS North Island
and spent countless hours examining the Grumman TF-1 Trader. Originally, the TF-1 Trader was a carrier onboard delivery
aircraft, whose primary mission was the consignment of personnel, mail, and critical parts for the naval carrier vessel itself. It was capable of launching off every size of naval carrier, even its smallest, in the United States Fleet. Detachments of VR-5 were dispersed worldwide everywhere US Naval carriers were sent. This proved the feasibility of the TF-1, assuring of it being potentially accessible almost virtually anywhere in the world.
The only difficulty was that the TF-1 Trader never in the past had foreseen its use in parachute deployment, modifications were made to the bombing bay chutes by mounting anchor-line cables to allow parachutists to hook up their static lines. After a thorough review of aerial and still photography, plus extra scrutiny of the aircraft, they attached dummies with the appropriate weight and gear and tested its use. Major Meyers, CWO Lew Vinson and two other NPU parachute engineers made the first live jumps from the TF-1 carrier aircraft on 9–13 July 1956. They began to test later jumps with the TF-1 by wearing additional combat gear, including weapons, packs and the AN/GRC9 radio.
The "first" off-carrier parachute jump test in naval aviation history was on July 26, 1956, when the Test Unit arranged a TF-1 Trader
from VR-5 to depart the USS Bennington (CVA-20)
and the Marines be recovered from sea. The Marines from Recon Platoon, MCTU #1, Major Bruce Meyers, 1stLt. Donald E. Koelper (later killed in combat as a Captain, receiving the first Navy Cross
of the Marine Corps in the Vietnam War
), and PFCs Kenneth Bell and Matthew O'Neill (later killed during the Test Unit's parachute training) made the jump. In August 1956, the recon platoon made its first parachute jump from a jet aircraft, the F3D-2 Skyknight
.
The American broadcast journalist
Walter Cronkite
later filmed 2nd Force Recon
in their off-carrier parachute jumps from the A3D Skywarrior
in "The New Recon Marines" in 1962.
in the Test Unit were first being tested in April 1953. The Marine Corps Test Unit #1's concept of pathfinder methods were; to develop techniques for undetected movement from their drop zones (DZ) to the preselected helicopter landing sites and approach-lane control points, coordination timing for pathfinder drops with atomic or other fire support
, and methods for last-minute emplacement of visual and electronic terminal guidance aids.
After the Grumman TF-1 Trader
was tested operationally for parachute entry in reconnaissance, the Recon Platoon assembled and trained as pathfinder teams; designed to parachute in, set up, and operate one helicopter landing zone consisting of one or more landing points for individual helicopters. Many of the pathfinder methods were developed by the recon-pathfinder Marines themselves. Major Bruce Meyers set up a direct liaison with their helicopter counterparts at MCAS El Toro
and MCAS Santa Ana
of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing
.
The helicopter crew and the Test Unit's recon platoon cross-trained in a series of day-and-night trial and error tests. They used the emergency SE-11 signal lights and the Justrite, a three-colored high-intensity beam used to guide pilots onto aircraft carriers during night landings. The Justrite had a simple visual sight that was intended for aiming either the lower edge, bottom red lens, indicating a too-low descent; the middle green lens, indicating a perfect elevation and/or descend; and the upper, top amber lens, indicating that the pilot must increase his rate of descend so as not to overshoot the landing zone (LZ). If the pilot saw "red", he were to decrease his rate of descend and immediately climb up until he was back into the "green".
In September 1956, Recon Platoon of MCTU #1 tested their pathfinding capabilities, the "first" operational use of Marine pathfinders in the Marine Corps. In preparation for the Air-Ground Landing Exercises (AGLEX) 57-E that was to be scheduled for early 1957, a pathfinder team parachuted into MCB Camp Pendleton
from a TF-1 Trader, established visual and radio aids and guided four helicopters to a designated LZ. It was proved satisfactory in utilizing the procedures and techniques worked out between the pathfinder teams, Marine Aircraft Group 36
(MAG-36) and MARS-37
.
On 28 March 1957, the pathfinders jumped in Helicopter Landing Exercise IV (HELILEX IV) with 3rd Battalion 1st Marines
.
Important among the reconnaissance and pathfinder elements were to improve the existing methods of post-reconnaissance evasion and recovery of the reconnaissance and pathfinder teams. It was already logical that if the recon teams were on, or near, the littoral areas of an amphibious operation
, they were close enough to be extracted by submarine or seaplane. However, since Marines were going to be penetrating and inserting deeper into enemy territory, it was time to develop practical means in overland evasion techniques to reach the availed recovery that is coherently from the sea.
In September 1956, the first training exercises in evasive methods were in the rugged Laguna Mountains
, east of San Diego in a region between MCB Pendleton
and El Centro
in California
. The recon Marines chose the Cuyamaca Reservoir
, a large, grassy, dried-up reservoir
suitable for a night parachute drop zone and subsequent helicopter landing zone.
The recon platoon was broken down into four-man recon teams and planned three successive jumps from the TF-1 Trader and two night jumps from the F3-D Skyknight jet. A P5M Marlin
seaplane was arranged to rendezvous with the teams off the western shore of the Salton Sea
at dawn for recovery once they conducted their preliminary pre-D-Day reconnaissance. The recon Marines would traverse by foot 60 mi (96.6 km) due east through the Colorado Desert
and Chocolate Mountains
to be picked up the seaplane. The recon platoon even made arrangements with the civilian agencies to create maximum realism to their evasion exercises. They notified the Federal Bureau of Investigation
, the United States Border Patrol
, and the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service
, as well as all police agencies working in the area. The local authorities would simulate enemy patrols; the realism added extreme scrutiny to the trials and tests of the recon platoon's training.
These long-range, cross-country evasion exercises were copied and exacted from the Royal Marines
; it depicted the similar roles in the British film The Cockleshell Heroes
.
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
. It was established outside the Fleet Marine Force
Fleet Marine Force
The United States Fleet Marine Forces are combined general and special purpose forces within the United States Department of the Navy that are designed in engaging offensive amphibious or expeditionary warfare and defensive maritime employment...
for the development of specialized tactics, techniques and organizational concepts, and to evaluate its tangible employment in the nuclear age
Nuclear proliferation
Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of nuclear weapons, fissile material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information, to nations which are not recognized as "Nuclear Weapon States" by the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also known as the...
. It reported directly to the Commandant of the Marine Corps
Commandant of the Marine Corps
The Commandant of the Marine Corps is normally the highest ranking officer in the United States Marine Corps and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff...
.
Mission
Mission objectives for Marine Corps Test Unit #1 as directed by Commandant of the Marine CorpsCommandant of the Marine Corps
The Commandant of the Marine Corps is normally the highest ranking officer in the United States Marine Corps and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff...
:
- Evolve organizational concepts for the Marine landing force under conditions of nuclear warfareNuclear warfareNuclear warfare, or atomic warfare, is a military conflict or political strategy in which nuclear weaponry is detonated on an opponent. Compared to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can be vastly more destructive in range and extent of damage...
, - Determine requirements for light-weight weapons and equipment to permit maximum tactical exploitation of nuclear weapons,
- Develop tactics and techniques responsive to the full employment of nuclear weapons, and
- Evolve operational concepts, transportation requirements, and techniques to enable fast task force ships and submarineSubmarineA submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability...
s, or a combination of such shipping and airliftAirliftAirlift is the act of transporting people or cargo from point to point using aircraft.Airlift may also refer to:*Airlift , a suction device for moving sand and silt underwater-See also:...
, for movement to the objective area and the ship-to-shoreAmphibious warfareAmphibious warfare is the use of naval firepower, logistics and strategy to project military power ashore. In previous eras it stood as the primary method of delivering troops to non-contiguous enemy-held terrain...
movement.
History
The two atomic bombs that were dropped on JapanJapan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
to end World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
demonstrated the threat of nuclear warfare
Nuclear warfare
Nuclear warfare, or atomic warfare, is a military conflict or political strategy in which nuclear weaponry is detonated on an opponent. Compared to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can be vastly more destructive in range and extent of damage...
. In December 1946, Marine Corps instructor Colonel Robert E. Cushman, Jr.
Robert E. Cushman, Jr.
General Robert Everton Cushman, Jr. served as the 25th Commandant of the Marine Corps from January 1, 1972 to June 30, 1975. He was honored for heroism in battle during World War II at the battles of Guam , Bougainville and Iwo Jima . He also commanded all Marine forces in Vietnam from June -...
wrote an extensive staff report to then-Marine Commandant
Commandant of the Marine Corps
The Commandant of the Marine Corps is normally the highest ranking officer in the United States Marine Corps and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff...
Alexander Vandegrift about feasible massive amphibious landings over small areas subject to potential tactical nuclear weapon
Tactical nuclear weapon
A tactical nuclear weapon refers to a nuclear weapon which is designed to be used on a battlefield in military situations. This is as opposed to strategic nuclear weapons which are designed to menace large populations, to damage the enemy's ability to wage war, or for general deterrence...
s. He envisioned that the Marine Corps
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
could no longer imagine small-scale operations, recommending the planning for greater mobility and dispersion, and focus entirely on operating more inland from the sea:
- "The tiny island, the single port, the small area...these will no longer be proper objectives. We must think in terms of 200 miles in width and depth." —Colonel Robert Cushman, April 1955.
It was not until 1951, after the Korean War
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
had commenced, that the Marine Corps began to develop heliborne experience in the battlefield when they used helicopter
Helicopter
A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by one or more engine-driven rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forwards, backwards, and laterally...
s to rapidly transport companies and battalions into the combat zone. However the Marines Corps didn't have enough helicopters nor the individual helicopter lift capability at that time to employ the tactics needed to implement Colonel Cushman's concept of dispersion.
Marine Commandant
Commandant of the Marine Corps
The Commandant of the Marine Corps is normally the highest ranking officer in the United States Marine Corps and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff...
Lemuel Shepherd
Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr.
Lemuel Cornick Shepherd, Jr. was a four-star general of the United States Marine Corps. A veteran of World War I, World War II, and the Korean War, he was the 20th Commandant of the Marine Corps...
's staff realized the Marine Corps was in need of a test unit outside the operationally committed Fleet Marine Force
Fleet Marine Force
The United States Fleet Marine Forces are combined general and special purpose forces within the United States Department of the Navy that are designed in engaging offensive amphibious or expeditionary warfare and defensive maritime employment...
to develop special tactics, techniques and organizational concepts for the nuclear age; however, it had to remain under operational control of the Commandant of the Marine Corps. On 1 July 1955, Commandant Shepherd approved his staff's recommendation and activated Marine Corps Test Unit #1, near Basilone Road at Camp Horno on MCB Camp Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton is the major West Coast base of the United States Marine Corps and serves as its prime amphibious training base...
.
Deactivation of MCTU #1
The Commandant acted upon that MCTU #1 would case its colors and integrate its research and development, merging their roles into the amphibious reconnaissance companies. Major Bruce F. Meyers relieved Captain Michael Sparks as the commanding officer of 1st Amphibious Reconnaissance Company on 18 June 1957. The next day, 1st Amphibious Reconnaissance Company received orders from the Fleet Marine Force, PacificFleet Marine Force, Pacific
The United States Fleet Marine Force, Pacific is the largest maritime landing force in the world. Its units are spread across the Pacific Ocean and reports to the United States Pacific Command. It is headquartered at MCB Camp H. M...
(FMFPac) and disbanded its colors. 1st Force Reconnaissance Company
1st Force Reconnaissance Company
The First Force Reconnaissance Company was the deep reconnaissance/direct action unit of the United States Marine Corps, that was assigned to the Fleet Marine Force, Pacific and its subordinate elements of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force...
was activated on 19 June 1957 with Bruce F. Meyers as its first Commanding Officer. Captain Joseph Z. Taylor was his executive officer. Although the MCTU #1 no longer existed, Major Meyers continued to pursue more unique methods in insertion capabilities.
Organization
General Shepherd appointed Colonel Edward N. Rydalch as the Test Unit's Commanding Officer (CO) and Lieutenant Colonel Regan Fuller as the Executive OfficerExecutive officer
An executive officer is generally a person responsible for running an organization, although the exact nature of the role varies depending on the organization.-Administrative law:...
(XO) over a command of 104 Marine officers, 1,412 enlisted, 7 Navy doctors and 51 Hospital Corpsmen
United States Navy Hospital Corpsman
A Hospital Corpsman is an enlisted medical specialist for the United States Navy who serves with Navy and United States Marine Corps units. The Hospital Corpsman works in a wide variety of capacities and locations, including shore establishments such as naval hospitals and clinics, aboard ships,...
, and one chaplain
Military chaplain
A military chaplain is a chaplain who ministers to soldiers, sailors, airmen, marines and other members of the military. In many countries, chaplains also minister to the family members of military personnel, to civilian noncombatants working for military organizations and to civilians within the...
.
The MCTU #1 initially began as a regimental-sized
Regiment
A regiment is a major tactical military unit, composed of variable numbers of batteries, squadrons or battalions, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant colonel...
unit with a Headquarters and Service Company
Headquarters and Service Company
A Headquarters and Service Company is a company sized military unit, found at the battalion level and higher in the United States Marine Corps. In identifying a specific headquarters unit, it is usually referred to by its abbreviation as H&S...
; one infantry
Infantry
Infantrymen are soldiers who are specifically trained for the role of fighting on foot to engage the enemy face to face and have historically borne the brunt of the casualties of combat in wars. As the oldest branch of combat arms, they are the backbone of armies...
battalion
Battalion
A battalion is a military unit of around 300–1,200 soldiers usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by either a Lieutenant Colonel or a Colonel...
consisting of four companies
Company (military unit)
A company is a military unit, typically consisting of 80–225 soldiers and usually commanded by a Captain, Major or Commandant. Most companies are formed of three to five platoons although the exact number may vary by country, unit type, and structure...
; one 75mm anti-tank platoon
Platoon
A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two to four sections or squads and containing 16 to 50 soldiers. Platoons are organized into a company, which typically consists of three, four or five platoons. A platoon is typically the smallest military unit led by a commissioned officer—the...
; one 4.2-inch mortar
M2 4.2 inch mortar
-External links:* early detailed article on 4.2 mortar...
platoon; one 75mm pack howitzer
M116 howitzer
The 75mm Pack Howitzer M1 was designed in the United States in 1920s to meet a need for an artillery piece that could be moved across difficult terrain. The gun and carriage was designed so that it could be broken down into several pieces to be carried by pack animals...
artillery battery
Artillery battery
In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit of guns, mortars, rockets or missiles so grouped in order to facilitate better battlefield communication and command and control, as well as to provide dispersion for its constituent gunnery crews and their systems...
. The Test Unit's Operations (S-3) officer was Major Dewey "Bob" Bohn.
The Infantry Battalion was commanded by Lt. Colonel Stanley Nelson, with Major Willmar "Bill" Bledsoe as the executive officer. It was assigned to test the feasibility of conducting major 'helicopter' landing assaults
Air assault
Air assault is the movement of ground-based military forces by vertical take-off and landing aircraft—such as the helicopter—to seize and hold key terrain which has not been fully secured, and to directly engage enemy forces...
projected from the sea. Similarly, amphib recon Marines
United States Marine Corps Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion
The United States Marine Corps's Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion, formerly Company, was a specialized team of Marines and Navy Corpsmen that performed clandestine preliminary pre-D-Day amphibious reconnaissance of planned beachheads and their littoral area within uncharted enemy territory for...
tested the usage of submarine
Submarine
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability...
s for coastal projection during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
A Plans and Development (P&D) Section was formed on April 1955 to evaluate the trials and tests of the Infantry Battalion and other subordinated unit's experiments with MCTU #1. Major Bruce F. Meyers reported for duty and was initially was assigned as the assistant operations officer of the Infantry Battalion. He was subsequently redesignated as the Helicopter Assault Airborne Techniques Officer.
By September 1955, the Reconnaissance Platoon, commanded by Captain Joseph Z. Taylor, was added to resolve the amphibious reconnaissance
Amphibious reconnaissance
The concept of amphibious reconnaissance, or commonly amphib recon, are used primarily in conjunction with ground and naval reconnaissance concerning the littoral area bordering coastal or maritime areas of interests...
role in the Fleet Marine Force. It was also tasked to bring the past force-level
Fleet Marine Force
The United States Fleet Marine Forces are combined general and special purpose forces within the United States Department of the Navy that are designed in engaging offensive amphibious or expeditionary warfare and defensive maritime employment...
preliminary amphib recon methods of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
towards a modern approach that included parachute insertions
Airborne forces
Airborne forces are military units, usually light infantry, set up to be moved by aircraft and 'dropped' into battle. Thus they can be placed behind enemy lines, and have an ability to deploy almost anywhere with little warning...
and helicopter capabilities.
| Marine Corps Test Unit #1 Commanding Officer — Colonel Edward N. Rydalch Executive Officer — Lieutenant Colonel Regan Fuller |
||
|---|---|---|
| Headquarters Company | Infantry Battalion Commanding Officer — Lt. Colonel Stanley Nelson Executive Officer — Major Willmar "Bill" Bledsoe |
|
| (S-1) Administration* (S-2) Intelligence (S-3) Operations — Major Dewey "Bob" Bohn (S-4) Logistics* (S-6) Communications (S-8) Finances* (S-9) Civil Affairs* Plans & Development Section† — Major Bruce F. Meyers |
A (Alpha) Company B (Bravo) Company C (Charlie) Company D (Delta) Company 75-mm Anti-Tank Platoon 4.2-inch Mortar Platoon 75-mm Pack Howitzer Artillery Battery Reconnaissance Platoon—Captain Joseph Z. Taylor |
|
| * Assigned to the general staff of MCB Camp Pendleton. † Acted as a combined Planning (S-5) and Training (S-7) section. ∞ A Medium Helicopter Squadron, augmented with three observation helicopters; and six attack aircraft — 1st Marine Aircraft Wing. |
||
An air element of a medium helicopter squadron was augmented with three observation helicopters and an additional six Grumman F9F-2 Panthers
F9F Panther
|-Popular culture:The Panther played a prominent role in the 1954 movie Men of the Fighting Lady . The F9F was featured in the flying sequences in the 1954 movie The Bridges at Toko-Ri, although in the 1953 James A...
to support MCTU #1 during its research and development. A Marine Air Wing element was attached along with administrative and logistic support at the request from nearby MCAS El Toro
Marine Corps Air Station El Toro
Marine Corps Air Station El Toro was a United States Marine Corps Air Station located near Irvine, California.Before it was decommissioned in 1999, it was the home of Marine Corps aviation on the West Coast. Designated as a Master Jet Station, its four runways could handle the largest aircraft...
.
Around late May in 1957, MCTU #1 finalized all their reports summarizing the last two years of the heliborne assault exercises, nuclear weapons testing, and the recon platoon's parachute reconnaissance and pathfinding experiments into a sixty-page after-action report archived as "Test Project 6H". By early June, the recon platoon received the last remaining jumpers from MCTU #1 and were adjoined by several more recon Marines from the 1st Marine Division Recon Company
1st Reconnaissance Battalion
1st Reconnaissance Battalion is a reconnaissance battalion in the United States Marine Corps. It falls under the command of the 1st Marine Division and the I Marine Expeditionary Force ....
that became jump qualified.
On 18 June 1957, the Recon Platoon from the Test Unit was disbanded and reported to 1st Marine Division, FMF, then to its Headquarters Battalion to assume command of the 1st Amphibious Reconnaissance Company
United States Marine Corps Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion
The United States Marine Corps's Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion, formerly Company, was a specialized team of Marines and Navy Corpsmen that performed clandestine preliminary pre-D-Day amphibious reconnaissance of planned beachheads and their littoral area within uncharted enemy territory for...
. Major Bruce F. Meyers relieved Captain Michael Spark, who was later killed in the Vietnam War
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
and awarded the Navy Cross
Navy Cross
The Navy Cross is the highest decoration that may be bestowed by the Department of the Navy and the second highest decoration given for valor. It is normally only awarded to members of the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps and United States Coast Guard, but can be awarded to all...
. The next day on 19 June 1957, the newly assembled 1st Amphib Recon Company was dissolved, casing its colors for the establishment of 1st Force Reconnaissance Company
1st Force Reconnaissance Company
The First Force Reconnaissance Company was the deep reconnaissance/direct action unit of the United States Marine Corps, that was assigned to the Fleet Marine Force, Pacific and its subordinate elements of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force...
, Fleet Marine Force.
Plans and Development Section
In April 1955, Colonel Edward Rydalch created a separate Plans and Development Section in an effort to author staff studies for various tests by the subordinated units of Marine Corps Test Unit #1 and make evaluations and reports to the Commandant on their progress. Col. Rydalch assumed additional duties as the titular head of the P&D Section. He assigned Lt. Colonels Regan Fuller and Chuck Bailey as the executive officers and supervisors of the daily tests and evaluations that were to be generated by P&D. The section operated much like a subsidiary to Operations (G-3) but with nominal independence within MCTU #1. It was established in the newly constructed 'Butler Building', dubbed as the "War Room". The building was completely surrounded by barbed wire and had an armed guard on post.A significant figure that revolutionized the modern scope of the Marine Corps reconnaissance doctrine was (then-) Captain Bruce F. Meyers. Prior to his assignment with the test unit, Meyers was a combat swimming instructor and also the officer-in-charge (OIC) of the Amphibious Reconnaissance School, NAB Coronado
Naval Amphibious Base Coronado
Naval Amphibious Base Coronado is a naval installation located across the bay from San Diego, CA. The base, situated on Silver Strand, between the San Diego Bay and the Pacific Ocean, is a major Navy shore command, supporting over 30 tenant commands, and is the West Coast focal point for special...
for 35 months. During his tenure as OIC, he began to develop innovative ideas of deeper parachute insertion methods from aircraft projected from aircraft carrier
Aircraft carrier
An aircraft carrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft, acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air power worldwide without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations...
s. He figured if the aircraft could slow down enough to land on carriers, then they could slow sufficiently for parachutists to exit and deploy their parachutes.
Meyers took this 'parachute entry' concept to Brig. General Lewis "Chesty" Puller
Chesty Puller
Lieutenant General Lewis Burwell "Chesty" Puller was an officer in the United States Marine Corps. Puller is the most decorated U.S...
, who requested that Meyers write a letter to the Commandant, outlining the plans and thoughts on deeper reconnaissance and pathfinding. With Chesty Puller's endorsement, the Commandant directed Meyers to attend parachutists schools. Meyers spent two weeks on Temporary Additional Duty orders to the Naval Parachute Loft on NAS North Island
Naval Air Station North Island
Naval Air Station North Island or NAS North Island is located at the north end of the Coronado peninsula on San Diego Bay and is the home port of several aircraft carriers of the United States Navy...
, then was sent to Fort Benning
Fort Benning
Fort Benning is a United States Army post located southeast of the city of Columbus in Muscogee and Chattahoochee counties in Georgia and Russell County, Alabama...
for one year with the United States Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
service schools to attend the Army Advanced Infantry School
United States Army Infantry School
The United States Army Infantry School is located in Fort Benning, Georgia. It is made up of the following components:*192d Infantry Brigade...
, and the parachute and jumpmaster courses. Upon completion, he was directed to report to the CO of the Marine Corps Test Unit #1 to test his ideas of deep parachute entry in use with reconnaissance. Major Bruce F. Meyers reported to MCTU #1 in early April 1955 and was immediately assigned as the assistant operations officer.
By May 1955, Major Meyers was reassigned to the P&D as the "Reconnaissance/Pathfinder Project Officer", until his title was initially changed to "Helicopter Assault Airborne Techniques Officer" to reflect the test unit's heliborne capabilities within the infantry battalion; his duties remained the same despite the title change. After setting up the Standard Operating Procedure for Test Unit 1, Major Meyers and the Test Unit's executive officer, LtCol. Fuller, prepared a detailed recommendation to their commanding officer, Col. Rydalch, and to the Commandant for approval of forming and training a reconnaissance platoon for MCTU #1.
Reconnaissance Platoon
The Recon Platoon, Marine Corps Test Unit #1, of some twenty Marines was established in September 1955 after the approval of the Commandant, by the recommendation of the P&D Section and the commanding officer of MCTU #1. The Recon Platoon was the precursor to the Force ReconnaissanceUnited States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance
The Force Reconnaissance Companies , are one of the United States Marine Corps's special operations "capable" forces that provide essential elements of military intelligence to the command element of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force ; supporting the landing or joint task force commanders, and...
companies and was created to be employed exclusively in the training, testing, and exercises designed to validate reconnaissance theories and techniques of an all-helicopter assault. These were applied to the higher levels in the echelon in addition to use at the battalion or regimental landing team-level. This recon platoon subsequently became the pivotal beginning of the existing deep recon assets that are maintained at Fleet Marine Force-level
Fleet Marine Force
The United States Fleet Marine Forces are combined general and special purpose forces within the United States Department of the Navy that are designed in engaging offensive amphibious or expeditionary warfare and defensive maritime employment...
.
The Test Unit's executive officer, Lt. Colonel Fuller, personally requested Captain Joseph Z. Taylor, a recon company commander with 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion
3rd Reconnaissance Battalion
The 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion conducts amphibious and ground reconnaissance for the 3rd Marine Division and Marine Forces Pacific , operating in the commander's areas of influence. The Battalion is based out of Camp Schwab, a satellite base of Marine Corps Base Camp Smedley D. Butler...
, to be the recon platoon commander. Taylor had served under LtCol. Fuller back in 1950 when Fuller was the commanding officer of 2nd Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion
United States Marine Corps Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion
The United States Marine Corps's Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion, formerly Company, was a specialized team of Marines and Navy Corpsmen that performed clandestine preliminary pre-D-Day amphibious reconnaissance of planned beachheads and their littoral area within uncharted enemy territory for...
on MCB Camp Lejeune
Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune
Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune is a United States military training facility in North Carolina. The base's of beaches make it a major area for amphibious assault training, and its location between two deep-water ports allows for fast deployments.The main base is supplemented by five satellite...
.
Taylor recently returned from reconnaissance exercise (RECONEX) 551 at Iwo Jima
Iwo Jima
Iwo Jima, officially , is an island of the Japanese Volcano Islands chain, which lie south of the Ogasawara Islands and together with them form the Ogasawara Archipelago. The island is located south of mainland Tokyo and administered as part of Ogasawara, one of eight villages of Tokyo...
aboard the USS Perch
USS Perch (SS-313)
USS Perch , a Balao-class submarine, was the second submarine of the United States Navy to be named for the perch, a rather small European fresh-water spiny-finned fish....
(ASPP-313) with 3rd Recon Battalion. This allowed Taylor to bring fresh submarine
Submarine
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability...
and rubber raft
Inflatable boat
An inflatable boat is a lightweight boat constructed with its sides and bow made of flexible tubes containing pressurised gas. For smaller boats, the floor and hull beneath it is often flexible. On boats longer than , the floor often consists of three to five rigid plywood or aluminium sheets fixed...
experiences to the Test Unit's experimental recon platoon.
LtCol. Regan Fuller tasked both Bruce Meyers and Joseph Taylor to seek new innovative ways in finding practical new aircraft, equipment, and methods to enhance and develop the emerging deep reconnaissance capability in the Marine Corps.
Infantry battalion
Early 1955, the four-company infantry battalion trained in wooden mockups of SikorskySikorsky Aircraft
The Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation is an American aircraft manufacturer based in Stratford, Connecticut. Its parent company is United Technologies Corporation.-History:...
helicopters in repetitive troop exercises, making the battalion fully capable of being helicopter transportable by following spring.
Exercise Desert Rock VI
Operation Teapot
Operation Teapot was a series of fourteen nuclear test explosions conducted at the Nevada Test Site in the first half of 1955.During shot "Wasp", ground forces took part in Exercise Desert Rock VI which included an armored task force "Razor" moving to within 900 meters of ground zero, under the...
. Operation TEAPOT was a series of tactical nuclear weapon
Tactical nuclear weapon
A tactical nuclear weapon refers to a nuclear weapon which is designed to be used on a battlefield in military situations. This is as opposed to strategic nuclear weapons which are designed to menace large populations, to damage the enemy's ability to wage war, or for general deterrence...
s tests with active nuclear warheads conducted by the United States Atomic Energy Commission
United States Atomic Energy Commission
The United States Atomic Energy Commission was an agency of the United States government established after World War II by Congress to foster and control the peace time development of atomic science and technology. President Harry S...
at the Nevada Test Site
Nevada Test Site
The Nevada National Security Site , previously the Nevada Test Site , is a United States Department of Energy reservation located in southeastern Nye County, Nevada, about northwest of the city of Las Vegas...
. The battalion and its detached aviation elements were involved in Shot 'Bee'.
A nuclear weapon was detonated simultaneously as the Infantry Battalion maneuvered within 3500 yard away from ground zero
Ground zero
The term ground zero describes the point on the Earth's surface closest to a detonation...
, acting as an amphibious battalion landing force in the vicinity of a nuclear fallout
Nuclear fallout
Fallout is the residual radioactive material propelled into the upper atmosphere following a nuclear blast, so called because it "falls out" of the sky after the explosion and shock wave have passed. It commonly refers to the radioactive dust and ash created when a nuclear weapon explodes...
. Close air support
Close air support
In military tactics, close air support is defined as air action by fixed or rotary winged aircraft against hostile targets that are close to friendly forces, and which requires detailed integration of each air mission with fire and movement of these forces.The determining factor for CAS is...
was used, targeting the helicopter Landing Zone
Landing Zone
A Landing Zone or "LZ" is a military term for any area where an aircraft can land.In the United States military, a landing zone is the actual point where aircraft land...
s ninety seconds before the Marines were set down. While the Marines were advancing, the mushroom cloud
Mushroom cloud
A mushroom cloud is a distinctive pyrocumulus mushroom-shaped cloud of condensed water vapor or debris resulting from a very large explosion. They are most commonly associated with nuclear explosions, but any sufficiently large blast will produce the same sort of effect. They can be caused by...
was still forming above. The battalion simulated their attacks through a buildup of mock trenches and facilities made to resemble an urbanized city
Urban warfare
Urban warfare is combat conducted in urban areas such as towns and cities. Urban combat is very different from combat in the open at both the operational and tactical level...
.
Exercise Desert Rock VI also concluded tests in the effects of the atomic blast on their equipment and Marines on the ground. Equipment and mannequins were placed in different locations of varying distances from ground zero, all displayed in different degrees of protection. After the detonation and fallout cleared, the Marines from the Infantry Battalion, Marine Corps Test Unit #1, were taken and shown the effects of their equipment and mannequins. The after-action report with the photographs that were taken before and after photographs revealed that their tanks had turrets blown off, amphibious tracked vehicles
Landing Vehicle Tracked
The Landing Vehicle Tracked was a class of amphibious vehicles introduced by the United States Navy, Marine Corps and Army during World War II. Originally intended solely as cargo carriers for ship to shore operations, they rapidly evolved into assault troop and fire support vehicles as well...
were turned upside-down, and the mannequins in the open were vaporized. However, the distance from ground zero and the additional level of protection proved noteworthy. The tactical exercise that they had successfully demonstrated gave the Marine Corps a survivability estimate and an appreciation for the atomic power of nuclear weapons.
Recon Platoon
The Reconnaissance Platoon of Marine Corp Test Unit #1 conducted ground reconnaissanceTerrestrial reconnaissance
Terrestrial reconnaissance, or ground recon, is a type of reconnaissance that is employed along the elements of ground warfare. It is the collection of intelligence that strictly involves routes, areas, zones ; and the enemy...
training to hone their skills, as well as basic and advanced amphibious recon
Amphibious reconnaissance
The concept of amphibious reconnaissance, or commonly amphib recon, are used primarily in conjunction with ground and naval reconnaissance concerning the littoral area bordering coastal or maritime areas of interests...
training that was set up through the liaison at the Amphibious Reconnaissance School, Troop Training Unit, Pacific (TTUPac) on NAB Coronado
Naval Amphibious Base Coronado
Naval Amphibious Base Coronado is a naval installation located across the bay from San Diego, CA. The base, situated on Silver Strand, between the San Diego Bay and the Pacific Ocean, is a major Navy shore command, supporting over 30 tenant commands, and is the West Coast focal point for special...
. Another training liaison was established with the Commander of the Naval Air Force, US Pacific Fleet, or COMNAVAIRPAC, at NAS North Island in enrolling the recon platoon into the Navy's
United States Navy
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U.S. Navy is the largest in the world; its battle fleet tonnage is greater than that of the next 13 largest navies combined. The U.S...
SERE School and the USAF's
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
Escape and Evasion (E&E) course; originally designed for aviation pilots that faced the possibility of being shot over enemy territory down during conflicts. It became a reasonable conclusion that reconnaissance Marines would be operating deep behind enemy lines and would require such training. After MCTU #1 had been dissolved, the 1st Force Recon Company
1st Force Reconnaissance Company
The First Force Reconnaissance Company was the deep reconnaissance/direct action unit of the United States Marine Corps, that was assigned to the Fleet Marine Force, Pacific and its subordinate elements of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force...
continued to experiment in newer innovative means in projecting and recovering their recon Marine operators from behind enemy lines safely and efficiently.
The MCTU #1 participated in major exercises with the first assembled Marine Air-Ground Task Force
Marine Air-Ground Task Force
The Marine Air-Ground Task Force is a term used by the United States Marine Corps to describe the principal organization for all missions across the range of military operations. MAGTFs are a balanced air-ground, combined arms task organization of Marine Corps forces under a single commander that...
during Air-Ground Landing Exercise 57-I (AGLEX 57-I) in December 1957, and Operation SKI JUMP in January 1957. During Operation SKI JUMP, the Reconnaissance Platoon were to provide pre-D-Day reconnaissance, and later pathfinding, for the upcoming helicopter assault waves. Thirty days prior to the scheduled landing, or D-Day minus thirty (D-30), the recon platoon was divided into two separate reconnaissance teams and parachuted into two separated drop zones to reconnoiter the planned helicopter Landing Dones. A simulated nuclear weapon was to be detonated between the two helicopter Landing Zones at 0810 the same day, prior to the planned pathfinder drop and following after helicopter landings of a battalion of Marines. The mock atomic bomb was made of 55 US gal (208.2 l) barrels of napalm
Napalm
Napalm is a thickening/gelling agent generally mixed with gasoline or a similar fuel for use in an incendiary device, primarily as an anti-personnel weapon...
buried into the ground. The pathfinder teams were scheduled to parachute to their respective drop zones, DZ Yellow and DZ Red, at 0815.
Three parachutist Marines were killed during SKI JUMP on January 17 at Case Springs, a high plateau and wooded area on Camp Pendleton. Severe winds suddenly appeared while the parachutists were in their descent. Corporal Ben Simpson and PFC Matthew J. O'Neill Jr., were dragged over 1000 ft (304.8 m). They were found dead by Major Bruce Meyers, their skulls were crushed and helmets gone due to the forcible drag. Lieutenant Kenneth Ball, the jumpmaster in the stick, was knocked unconscious and wasn't able to attempt the quick-release; he later died at the Camp Pendleton hospital from multiple intrusions. The Marines in the Recon Platoon were using the standard military-issued T-10 parachutes. One of the findings were that the T-10 safety "quick-release" on the front of the harness made it quite impossible to detach in case of emergencies, even after frequent practice by the parachutists. Dirt and small rocks fouled the quick-releases while the harnesses were dragged at 15 miles per hour (24.1 km/h) over the ground, making them ineffective.
The Board of Investigations concluded that improvements to their parachutists and equipment were to be provided. Chief Warrant Officer
Warrant Officer (United States)
In the United States military, the rank of warrant officer is rated as an officer above the senior-most enlisted ranks, as well as officer cadets and candidates, but below the officer grade of O-1...
Lewis "Lew" T. Vinson suggested that the Capewell canopy release
Cut-away
Cut-away is a skydiving term referring to disconnecting the main parachute from the harness-container in case of a malfunction in preparation for opening the reserve parachute...
be installed on all the Marines' parachutes, static-line or free-fall, to permit the jumper to get out of the harness if caught in a drag. Later, the Army
United States Army
The United States Army is the main branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is the largest and oldest established branch of the U.S. military, and is one of seven U.S. uniformed services...
Parachute Boards came to the same conclusion at Fort Benning
Fort Benning
Fort Benning is a United States Army post located southeast of the city of Columbus in Muscogee and Chattahoochee counties in Georgia and Russell County, Alabama...
and Fort Bragg
Fort Bragg (North Carolina)
Fort Bragg is a major United States Army installation, in Cumberland and Hoke counties, North Carolina, U.S., mostly in Fayetteville but also partly in the town of Spring Lake. It was also a census-designated place in the 2010 census and had a population of 39,457. The fort is named for Confederate...
. Six Army parachutists had been recently killed at Fort Bragg in the same manner as the unfortunate Marines at Case Springs. Because of these deaths, it led to the recommendation and requirement of adopting the Capewell release for all the services involved in parachuting.
Parachutist and jumpmaster training
Not until April 1956, the Marines in the Recon Platoon were able to gain the necessary quotas to send the recon platoon leader, Captain Joe Taylor, and his twenty enlisted Marines to the United States Army Airborne SchoolUnited States Army Airborne School
The United States Army Airborne School — widely known as Jump School — conducts the basic paratrooper training for the United States armed forces. It is operated by the 1st Battalion , 507th Infantry, United States Army Infantry School, Fort Benning, Georgia...
at Fort Benning
Fort Benning
Fort Benning is a United States Army post located southeast of the city of Columbus in Muscogee and Chattahoochee counties in Georgia and Russell County, Alabama...
, Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
. However, Bruce Meyers was the only Marine within MCTU #1 that had parachutist experience and qualifications and recognized the perils of not being prepared for airborne school. Through their recommendation, Meyers and Taylor were enabled to construct its own 'pre-jump school' to prepare Marines for the course; this prevented the loss of Marines that became unqualified due to the Test Unit's training quota.
Captain Taylor managed to get the services of Sergeant Robert Zweiner, a parachute rigger
Parachute rigger
A parachute rigger is a person who is trained or licensed to pack, maintain or repair parachutes. A rigger is required to understand fabrics, hardware, webbing, regulations, sewing, packing, and other aspects related to the building, packing, repair, and maintenance of parachutes.- Military...
from an Air Delivery Platoon at the nearby airstrip on Camp Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton is the major West Coast base of the United States Marine Corps and serves as its prime amphibious training base...
. Sgt. Zweiner led a grueling course, instructing the Marines in Parachute Landing Fall
Parachute Landing Fall
A parachute landing fall is a safety technique that allows a parachutist to land safely and without injury. The technique is performed by paratroopers and novice recreational parachutists when using round parachutes deployed by static line....
s (PLFs), body positioning and positive exits from aircraft. All of them were able to pass the pull-up physicals and complete the long runs; by the time the Test Unit's recon Marines were sent to the actual school, they were well-prepared and everyone passed the course, each earning their silver wings and returning to MCTU #1. Robert Zweiner was quickly reassigned and transferred to MCTU #1 to head the test unit's newly formed Parachute Loft, becoming the founder of 1st Force Reconnaissance Company
1st Force Reconnaissance Company
The First Force Reconnaissance Company was the deep reconnaissance/direct action unit of the United States Marine Corps, that was assigned to the Fleet Marine Force, Pacific and its subordinate elements of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force...
's Paraloft.
Although all the Marines assigned to the Test Unit's recon platoon were now low-level static line
Static line
A static line is a fixed cord attached to a large, stable object. It is used for safety in construction andto open parachutes automatically for paratroopers and novice parachutists.-Use in parachuting:...
qualified, Major Bruce Meyers was still, however, the only Marine in MCTU #1 with free-fall experience. Meyers's next objective were to turn the majority of Marines in the recon platoon to become also free-fall qualified.
Once again, Meyers set up training with a training liaison to send a bulk of the platoon on temporary additional duty on 1 July 1956 to the Naval Parachute Unit (NPU) at Naval Auxiliary Air Station
Naval Air Facility El Centro
Naval Air Facility El Centro or NAF El Centro is a military airport located six miles northwest of El Centro, in Imperial County, California, USA.-History:...
in El Centro, California
El Centro, California
El Centro is a city in and county seat of Imperial County, the largest city in the Imperial Valley and the east anchor of the Southern California Border Region, and the core urban area and principal city of the El Centro metropolitan area which encompasses all of Imperial County. El Centro is also...
. Under the instructions of a very highly qualified Navy jumpmaster
Jumpmaster
Jumpmasters are the expert Paratroopers in an Airborne unit who train and teach the military techniques for jumping from airplanes. They are responsible for transforming Soldiers who enter Army Airborne School into Paratroopers and managing Airborne jump operations in Airborne units across all...
, Chief Warrant Officer Lewis "Lew" T. Vinsen, introduced the art of free-falling to the recon platoon. Due to the free exchange and cross-training cooperation in these efforts, on one occasion, Air Force
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a separate branch of the military on September 18, 1947 under the National Security Act of...
Captain Joseph Kittinger
Joseph Kittinger
Joseph William Kittinger II is a former Command Pilot and career military officer in the United States Air Force. He is most famous for his participation in Project Manhigh and Project Excelsior, holding the records for having the highest, fastest and longest skydive, from a height greater than...
from Wright Patterson Test Center
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base in Greene and Montgomery counties in the state of Ohio. It includes both Wright and Patterson Fields, which were originally Wilbur Wright Field and Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot. Patterson Field is located approximately...
jumped several times with the Marines of Recon Platoon, Marine Corps Test Unit #1. Capt. Kittinger later made, and still holds, the world-record for the highest free-fall parachute jump from the gondola of a high-altitude balloon.
The recon Marines would jump on average two- to three-times daily testing various types of parachutes, which soon became apparent by both MCTU #1 and NPU that the Marine should also try to become 'navy test parachutists' due to the increased sophisticated and variant types of free-fall jumps the recon Marines were experimenting. By the next year, Major Bruce Meyers, Captain Joe Taylor, Sergeant Robert Zweiner and several others of the 'more-qualified' Marines parachutists within the test unit's recon platoon subsequently became qualified as "Naval Test Parachutists" after completing the twenty-two jump syllabus.
In the realization of the increasingly sophisticated parachute jumps, jumpmaster
Jumpmaster
Jumpmasters are the expert Paratroopers in an Airborne unit who train and teach the military techniques for jumping from airplanes. They are responsible for transforming Soldiers who enter Army Airborne School into Paratroopers and managing Airborne jump operations in Airborne units across all...
s were assigned to oversee the overall conduct of the jumps performed. The most important aspect of this training was the jumpmaster's judgment, determining the exit points that would best get his Marines into the LZ, and to judge the winds appropriately both on the ground and aloft. Eventually, all the staff non-commissioned officers were jumpmaster qualified after five jumps as Assistant Jumpmasters.
Off-carrier tests
One of the highest priorities considered for reconnaissance and pathfinder parachute insertions in the Marine CorpsUnited States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
were to expand its capability in jumping from carrier-based aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft are military aircraft designed specifically for operations from aircraft carriers. The term is generally applied only to fixed-wing aircraft, as naval helicopters are able to operate from a wider variety of aviation-capable ships. Carrier-based aircraft must be relatively...
. The jump logs for MCTU #1 and the first twenty months of 1st Force Recon has shown various types of parachutes and different carrier-based aircraft that had been experimented in finding alternative methods parachute entry, such as the Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars
C-119 Flying Boxcar
The Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar was an American military transport aircraft developed from the World War II-era Fairchild C-82 Packet, designed to carry cargo, personnel, litter patients, and mechanized equipment, and to drop cargo and troops by parachute...
, Douglas R4D-6 Skytrains
C-47 Skytrain
The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft that was developed from the Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II and remained in front line operations through the 1950s with a few remaining in operation to this day.-Design and...
, Lockheed P2V Neptunes
P-2 Neptune
The Lockheed P-2 Neptune was a Maritime patrol and ASW aircraft. It was developed for the United States Navy by Lockheed to replace the Lockheed PV-1 Ventura and PV-2 Harpoon, and being replaced in turn with the Lockheed P-3 Orion...
, L-2 Beavers
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver
The de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver is a single-engined, high-wing, propeller-driven, STOL aircraft developed by de Havilland Canada, primarily known as a bush plane. It is used for cargo and passenger hauling, aerial application , and has been widely adopted by armed forces as a utility aircraft...
, AJ-2 Savages
AJ Savage
|-See also:-References:NotesBibliography* Grossnick, Roy A. . Washington, DC:Naval Historical Center, 1995. ISBN 0-945274-29-7.* Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London:Putnam, Second edition, 1976. ISBN 0 370 10054 9.* Wilson, Stewart. Combat...
, F3D-2 Skyknights
F3D Skyknight
The Douglas F3D Skyknight, was a United States twin-engine, midwing jet fighter aircraft manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company in El Segundo, California. The F3D was designed as a carrier-based all-weather aircraft. It saw service with the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps...
, TF-1 Trader
C-1 Trader
|-See also:-External links:...
and A-3 Skywarrior
A-3 Skywarrior
The Douglas A-3 Skywarrior was originally designed as a strategic bomber for the United States Navy and was among the longest serving carrier-based jet aircraft in history. It entered service in the mid-1950s and was retired in 1991...
s.
Beginning in May 1956, Major Bruce, Captain Taylor and Sergeant Zweiner headed to the Air Transport Squadron Five
VRC-30
Fleet Logistics Support Squadron 30 , also known as the "Providers", is a United States Navy Fleet Logistics Support squadron based at Naval Air Station North Island consisting of 5 detachments.-History:...
(VR-5) at NAS North Island
Naval Air Station North Island
Naval Air Station North Island or NAS North Island is located at the north end of the Coronado peninsula on San Diego Bay and is the home port of several aircraft carriers of the United States Navy...
and spent countless hours examining the Grumman TF-1 Trader. Originally, the TF-1 Trader was a carrier onboard delivery
Carrier onboard delivery
Carrier Onboard Delivery is a military term used to describe type of aircraft which are able to ferry personnel, mail, and high-priority cargo on and off a naval ship .-History:...
aircraft, whose primary mission was the consignment of personnel, mail, and critical parts for the naval carrier vessel itself. It was capable of launching off every size of naval carrier, even its smallest, in the United States Fleet. Detachments of VR-5 were dispersed worldwide everywhere US Naval carriers were sent. This proved the feasibility of the TF-1, assuring of it being potentially accessible almost virtually anywhere in the world.
The only difficulty was that the TF-1 Trader never in the past had foreseen its use in parachute deployment, modifications were made to the bombing bay chutes by mounting anchor-line cables to allow parachutists to hook up their static lines. After a thorough review of aerial and still photography, plus extra scrutiny of the aircraft, they attached dummies with the appropriate weight and gear and tested its use. Major Meyers, CWO Lew Vinson and two other NPU parachute engineers made the first live jumps from the TF-1 carrier aircraft on 9–13 July 1956. They began to test later jumps with the TF-1 by wearing additional combat gear, including weapons, packs and the AN/GRC9 radio.
The "first" off-carrier parachute jump test in naval aviation history was on July 26, 1956, when the Test Unit arranged a TF-1 Trader
C-1 Trader
|-See also:-External links:...
from VR-5 to depart the USS Bennington (CVA-20)
USS Bennington (CV-20)
USS Bennington was one of 24 s built during World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the second US Navy ship to bear the name, and was named for the Revolutionary War Battle of Bennington...
and the Marines be recovered from sea. The Marines from Recon Platoon, MCTU #1, Major Bruce Meyers, 1stLt. Donald E. Koelper (later killed in combat as a Captain, receiving the first Navy Cross
Navy Cross
The Navy Cross is the highest decoration that may be bestowed by the Department of the Navy and the second highest decoration given for valor. It is normally only awarded to members of the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps and United States Coast Guard, but can be awarded to all...
of the Marine Corps in the Vietnam War
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
), and PFCs Kenneth Bell and Matthew O'Neill (later killed during the Test Unit's parachute training) made the jump. In August 1956, the recon platoon made its first parachute jump from a jet aircraft, the F3D-2 Skyknight
F3D Skyknight
The Douglas F3D Skyknight, was a United States twin-engine, midwing jet fighter aircraft manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company in El Segundo, California. The F3D was designed as a carrier-based all-weather aircraft. It saw service with the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps...
.
The American broadcast journalist
Broadcast journalism
Broadcast journalism is the field of news and journals which are "broadcast", that is, published by electrical methods, instead of the older methods, such as printed newspapers and posters. Broadcast methods include radio , television , and, especially recently, the Internet generally...
Walter Cronkite
Walter Cronkite
Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr. was an American broadcast journalist, best known as anchorman for the CBS Evening News for 19 years . During the heyday of CBS News in the 1960s and 1970s, he was often cited as "the most trusted man in America" after being so named in an opinion poll...
later filmed 2nd Force Recon
2nd Force Reconnaissance Company
The Second Force Reconnaissance Company was the deep reconnaissance/direct action that was assigned to the Fleet Marine Force, Atlantic and its subordinate elements of the Marine Air-Ground Task Force.-Mission:...
in their off-carrier parachute jumps from the A3D Skywarrior
A-3 Skywarrior
The Douglas A-3 Skywarrior was originally designed as a strategic bomber for the United States Navy and was among the longest serving carrier-based jet aircraft in history. It entered service in the mid-1950s and was retired in 1991...
in "The New Recon Marines" in 1962.
Pathfinder training
The development of Marine Corps pathfindingPathfinders (military)
A pathfinder is a paratrooper who is inserted or dropped into place in order to set up and operate drop zones, pickup zones, and helicopter landing sites for airborne operations, air resupply operations, or other air operations in support of the ground unit commander...
in the Test Unit were first being tested in April 1953. The Marine Corps Test Unit #1's concept of pathfinder methods were; to develop techniques for undetected movement from their drop zones (DZ) to the preselected helicopter landing sites and approach-lane control points, coordination timing for pathfinder drops with atomic or other fire support
Fire support
Fire support is long-range firepower provided to a front-line military unit. Typically, fire support is provided by artillery or close air support , and is used to shape the battlefield or, more optimistically, define the battle...
, and methods for last-minute emplacement of visual and electronic terminal guidance aids.
After the Grumman TF-1 Trader
C-1 Trader
|-See also:-External links:...
was tested operationally for parachute entry in reconnaissance, the Recon Platoon assembled and trained as pathfinder teams; designed to parachute in, set up, and operate one helicopter landing zone consisting of one or more landing points for individual helicopters. Many of the pathfinder methods were developed by the recon-pathfinder Marines themselves. Major Bruce Meyers set up a direct liaison with their helicopter counterparts at MCAS El Toro
Marine Corps Air Station El Toro
Marine Corps Air Station El Toro was a United States Marine Corps Air Station located near Irvine, California.Before it was decommissioned in 1999, it was the home of Marine Corps aviation on the West Coast. Designated as a Master Jet Station, its four runways could handle the largest aircraft...
and MCAS Santa Ana
Marine Corps Air Station Tustin
Tustin Legacy is a planned community in Tustin, California being developed on the former Marine Corps Air Station Tustin. The project, under construction, will include parks, a commercial retail center and various densities of housing, for a total of 4,600 units.The City’s vision for Tustin Legacy...
of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing
1st Marine Aircraft Wing
The 1st Marine Aircraft Wing is an aviation unit of the United States Marine Corps that serves as the Aviation Combat Element of the III Marine Expeditionary Force. The wing is headquartered at Camp Foster on the island of Okinawa, Japan...
.
The helicopter crew and the Test Unit's recon platoon cross-trained in a series of day-and-night trial and error tests. They used the emergency SE-11 signal lights and the Justrite, a three-colored high-intensity beam used to guide pilots onto aircraft carriers during night landings. The Justrite had a simple visual sight that was intended for aiming either the lower edge, bottom red lens, indicating a too-low descent; the middle green lens, indicating a perfect elevation and/or descend; and the upper, top amber lens, indicating that the pilot must increase his rate of descend so as not to overshoot the landing zone (LZ). If the pilot saw "red", he were to decrease his rate of descend and immediately climb up until he was back into the "green".
In September 1956, Recon Platoon of MCTU #1 tested their pathfinding capabilities, the "first" operational use of Marine pathfinders in the Marine Corps. In preparation for the Air-Ground Landing Exercises (AGLEX) 57-E that was to be scheduled for early 1957, a pathfinder team parachuted into MCB Camp Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton is the major West Coast base of the United States Marine Corps and serves as its prime amphibious training base...
from a TF-1 Trader, established visual and radio aids and guided four helicopters to a designated LZ. It was proved satisfactory in utilizing the procedures and techniques worked out between the pathfinder teams, Marine Aircraft Group 36
Marine Aircraft Group 36
Marine Aircraft Group 36 is an active air group of the United States Marine Corps, tasked with providing assault support aircraft. It is currently part of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing , itself an integral part of the III Marine Expeditionary Force, and based at Marine Corps Air Station Futenma in...
(MAG-36) and MARS-37
Marine Wing Support Group 37
Marine Wing Support Group 37 is a United States Marine Corps aviation combat service support unit based at Marine Corps Air Station Miramar that is currently composed of 4 squadrons, that provide the 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing and I Marine Expeditionary Force with complete airfield operation...
.
On 28 March 1957, the pathfinders jumped in Helicopter Landing Exercise IV (HELILEX IV) with 3rd Battalion 1st Marines
3rd Battalion 1st Marines
3rd Battalion 1st Marines is an infantry battalion in the United States Marine Corps based out of Camp Horno on Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California...
.
Extraction and recovery methods
The MCTU #1 reported to the Commandant of the Marine Corps that they had proven and tested its capability in full operational methods of insertion for deeper pre-assault and post-assault parachute reconnaissance. It would supplement the already existing methods of amphibious reconnaissance of areas close proximity of the littoral landing beaches. The Marines now had the capability of carrier-launching recon teams, day or night, for effecting penetration of enemy radar air defenses and postdrop retirement of the carrier aircraft.Important among the reconnaissance and pathfinder elements were to improve the existing methods of post-reconnaissance evasion and recovery of the reconnaissance and pathfinder teams. It was already logical that if the recon teams were on, or near, the littoral areas of an amphibious operation
Amphibious warfare
Amphibious warfare is the use of naval firepower, logistics and strategy to project military power ashore. In previous eras it stood as the primary method of delivering troops to non-contiguous enemy-held terrain...
, they were close enough to be extracted by submarine or seaplane. However, since Marines were going to be penetrating and inserting deeper into enemy territory, it was time to develop practical means in overland evasion techniques to reach the availed recovery that is coherently from the sea.
In September 1956, the first training exercises in evasive methods were in the rugged Laguna Mountains
Laguna Mountains
The Laguna Mountains are a section of the Peninsular Ranges in eastern San Diego County, California. The mountains run in a northwest/southeast alignment for approximately ....
, east of San Diego in a region between MCB Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton is the major West Coast base of the United States Marine Corps and serves as its prime amphibious training base...
and El Centro
Naval Air Facility El Centro
Naval Air Facility El Centro or NAF El Centro is a military airport located six miles northwest of El Centro, in Imperial County, California, USA.-History:...
in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
. The recon Marines chose the Cuyamaca Reservoir
Cuyamaca, California
Cuyamaca is a region of eastern San Diego County. It lies east of the Capitan Grande Indian Reservation in the western Laguna Mountains, north of Descanso and south of Julian. Named for the 1845 Rancho Cuyamaca Mexican land grant, the region is now dominated by the Cuyamaca Rancho State Park...
, a large, grassy, dried-up reservoir
Reservoir
A reservoir , artificial lake or dam is used to store water.Reservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction of a dam or may be built by excavation in the ground or by conventional construction techniques such as brickwork or cast concrete.The term reservoir may also be used to...
suitable for a night parachute drop zone and subsequent helicopter landing zone.
The recon platoon was broken down into four-man recon teams and planned three successive jumps from the TF-1 Trader and two night jumps from the F3-D Skyknight jet. A P5M Marlin
P5M Marlin
|- See also :- References :NotesBibliography* Andrade, John, U.S.Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909, Midland Counties Publications, 1979, ISBN 0 904597 22 9.* Barth, Bruce D., "The Martin P5M 'Marlin'". Pacific Aero Press, 1994....
seaplane was arranged to rendezvous with the teams off the western shore of the Salton Sea
Salton Sea
The Salton Sea is a shallow, saline, endorheic rift lake located directly on the San Andreas Fault, predominantly in California's Imperial Valley. The lake occupies the lowest elevations of the Salton Sink in the Colorado Desert of Imperial and Riverside counties in Southern California. Like Death...
at dawn for recovery once they conducted their preliminary pre-D-Day reconnaissance. The recon Marines would traverse by foot 60 mi (96.6 km) due east through the Colorado Desert
Colorado Desert
California's Colorado Desert is a part of the larger Sonoran Desert, which extends across southwest North America. The Colorado Desert region encompasses approximately , reaching from the Mexican border in the south to the higher-elevation Mojave Desert in the north and from the Colorado River in...
and Chocolate Mountains
Chocolate Mountains
The Chocolate Mountains of California are located in Imperial County and Riverside County in the Colorado Desert in Southern California. The mountains stretch more than 60 miles in a northwest to southeast direction, and are located east of the Salton Sea and south and west of the Chuckwalla...
to be picked up the seaplane. The recon platoon even made arrangements with the civilian agencies to create maximum realism to their evasion exercises. They notified the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Federal Bureau of Investigation
The Federal Bureau of Investigation is an agency of the United States Department of Justice that serves as both a federal criminal investigative body and an internal intelligence agency . The FBI has investigative jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal crime...
, the United States Border Patrol
United States Border Patrol
The United States Border Patrol is a federal law enforcement agency within U.S. Customs and Border Protection , a component of the Department of Homeland Security . It is an agency in the Department of Homeland Security that enforces laws and regulations for the admission of foreign-born persons to...
, and the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service
Immigration and Naturalization Service
The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service , now referred to as Legacy INS, ceased to exist under that name on March 1, 2003, when most of its functions were transferred from the Department of Justice to three new components within the newly created Department of Homeland Security, as...
, as well as all police agencies working in the area. The local authorities would simulate enemy patrols; the realism added extreme scrutiny to the trials and tests of the recon platoon's training.
These long-range, cross-country evasion exercises were copied and exacted from the Royal Marines
Royal Marines
The Corps of Her Majesty's Royal Marines, commonly just referred to as the Royal Marines , are the marine corps and amphibious infantry of the United Kingdom and, along with the Royal Navy and Royal Fleet Auxiliary, form the Naval Service...
; it depicted the similar roles in the British film The Cockleshell Heroes
The Cockleshell Heroes
The Cockleshell Heroes is a 1955 film with Trevor Howard, Anthony Newley, David Lodge and José Ferrer, who also directed. Set during the Second World War, it is a fictionalised account of Operation Frankton, the December 1942 raid by canoe-borne British commandos on shipping in Bordeaux Harbour...
.