Mongol-Tibetan relations in the 13th and 14th centuries
Encyclopedia
The Mongol invasion of Tibet can refer to the following campaigns by the Mongols against Tibet. The earliest is the alleged plot to invade Tibet by Genghis Khan in 1206, which is considered anachronistic; there is no evidence of Mongol-Tibetan encounters prior to the military campaign in 1240. The first confirmed campaign is the invasion of Tibet by the Mongol general Doorda Darkhan in 1240, a campaign of 30,000 troops that resulted in 500 casualties. The campaign was smaller than the full-scale invasions used by the Mongols against large empires. The purpose of this attack is unclear, and is still in debate among tibetologists.
plotted to invade Tibet in 1206, but was dissuaded when the Tibetans promised to pay tribute to the Mongols. Modern scholars consider the account to be anachronistic and factually wrong. Genghis' campaign was targeted at the Tangut kingdom of Xixia
, not Tibet, and there was certainly no tribute being paid to the Mongols prior to 1240. There is no evidence of interaction between the two nations prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion in 1240.
The earliest real Mongol contact with ethnic Tibetan people
came in 1236, when a Tibetan chief near Wenxian submitted to the Mongols campaigning against the Jin Dynasty
in Sichuan
.
's younger brother, "delegated the command of the Tibetan invasion to the Tangut
general, Doorda Darqan (Dor-ta)". The expedition was "the first instance of military conflict between the two nations". The attack consisted of 30,000 men (most possibly much smaller than that) and resulted in 500 casualties, along with the burning of the Kadampa
monasteries of Rwa-sgreṅ and Rgyal-lha-khang. The campaign was smaller than the full-scale invasions used by the Mongols against large empires. According to Turrell V. Wylie
, that much is in agreement among tibetologists. However, the purpose of invasion is disputed among Tibetan scholars, partly because of the abundance of anachronistic and factually erroneous sources.
However, modern studies find that the Mongol scouts burned Rwa-sgreng only. The bKa’-brgyud-pa monasteries of sTag-lung and
’Bri-gung, with their old link to the Xixia dynasty, were spared because Doorda himself was a Tangut Buddhist. The
’Bri-gung abbot suggested the Mongols invite the Sa-skya-pa hierarch, Sa-skya Pandita. After he met Köten, Sa-skya Pandita died there leaving his two nephews. Sa-skya Pandita convinced other monasteries in Central Tibet to align with the Mongols. The Mongols kept them as hostages referring symbolic surrender of Tibet.
One view, considered the most traditional, is that the attack was a retaliation on Tibet caused by the Tibetan refusal to pay tribute. Wylie points out that the Tibetans stopped paying tribute in 1227, while Doorda Darkhan's invasion was in 1240, suggesting that the Mongols, not known for their empathy, would not wait over a decade to respond. The text from which this claim is based on also makes other anachronistic mistakes, insisting that Genghis was planning to attack Tibet prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion, when the real campaign was against the Tangut kingdom of Xixia
.
Another theory, supported by Wylie, is that the military action was a reconnaissance
campaign meant to evaluate the political situation in Tibet. The Mongols hoped to find a single monarch with whom they could threaten into submission, but instead found a Tibet that was religiously and politically divided, without a central government.
A third view is that the troops were sent as raids and "looting parties", and that the goal of the campaign was to pillage the "wealth amassed in the Tibetan monasteries". This is disputed, as the Mongols deliberately avoided attacking certain monasteries, a questionable decision if their only goal was profit.
Whatever the purpose of the invasion, the Mongols withdrew in 1241, as all the Mongol princes were recalled back to Mongolia in preparation for the appointment of a successor to Ogedai Khan. In 1244, the Mongols returned to Tibet. They invited a Tibetan lama, Sakya Pandita, to Godan's camp, where he agreed to capitulate Tibet, after the Mongols threatened a full-scale invasion of the region.
Sakya Pandita died in 1251 and his master Köten possibly died at the same time, and Möngke Khan
became Khagan
in the same year. Some sources say there was a Mongolian invasion in 1251, in retribution for a failure to pay tribute, or in 1251-2 'to take formal possession of the country'. In order to strengthen his control over Tibet
, Mongke made Qoridai commander of the Mongol and Han troops in Tufan in 1251. Two attacks are mentioned, one led by Dörbetei, the other by Qoridai, and the double campaign struck fear into the Tibetans. Tibetan sources however only mention an attack on a place called Bod kyi-mon-mkhar-mgpon-po-gdong,. Wyle is sceptical however of all of these sources, arguing that the lack of substantive evidence for an invasion raises doubts about the extent of Mongol movements in Tibet proper.' He concludes:-
In 1252-53 Qoridai invaded Tibet, reaching as far as Damxung. The Central Tibetian monasteries submitted to the Mongols. Mongke divided between his relatives as their appanage
s in accordance with Great Jasag
of Genghis Khan. Many Mongol aristocrats including Khagan himself seem to have sought blessings of prominent Tibetan lamas. Möngke Khan patronized Karma Baqshi (1204–83) of the Karma-pa suborder and the ’Bri-gung Monastery, while Hulegu, khan of the Mongols
in the Middle East
, sent lavish gifts to both ’Bri-gung and the Phag-mo-gru-pa suborder’s gDan-sa-thel monastery. Later William Rubruck report that he saw Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian Buddhist monks at the capital city, Karakourm, of the Mongol Empire.
Although, Karma of the Karma-pa sect politely refused to stay with him preferring his brother: the Khagan, in 1253 Prince Kubilai summoned to his court the Sa-skya-pa hierarch’s two nephews, Blo-gros rGyal-mtshan, known as ’Phags-Pa lama (1235–80), and Phyag-na rDo-rje (d. 1267) from the late Köten's ordo in Liangzhou. Khubilai Khan first met 'Phags-pa lama in 1253, presumably to bring the Sa-skya lama who resided in Köden's domain, and who was a symbol of Tibetan surrender, to his own camp. At first Kublai remained shamanist, but his chief khatun, Chabui (Chabi), converted to Buddhism and influenced Kublai's religious view. During Kublai's expedition into Yunnan, his number two, Uriyangkhadai, had to station in Tibet in 1254-55 possibly to supress war-like different tribes in Tibet.
In 1265 Qongridar ravaged the Tufan/mDo-smad area, and from 1264 to 1275 several campaigns pacified the Tibetan and Yi peoples of Xifan around modern Xichang. By 1278 Mongol myriarchies: tumens and postroads reached through mDo-khams as far west as Litang.
Tibet was incorporated into the Mongol Empire
under Mongolian administrative rule, but the region was granted with a degree of political autonomy. Kublai Khan would later include Tibet into his Yuan Dynasty
, and the region remained administratively separate from the conquered provinces of Song Dynasty
China.
According to the Tibetan traditional view, the khan and the lama established "priest-patron" relations. This meant administrative management and military assistance from the khan and assistance from the lama in spiritual issues. Tibet was conquered by the Mongols before the Mongol invasion of South China. After the conquest of the Song Dynasty, Kublai Khan consolidated Tibet into the new Yuan Dynasty, but Tibet was ruled under the Xuanzheng Yuan, separate from the Chinese provinces. The Mongols granted the Sakya
lama a degree political authority, but retained control over the administration and military of the region.
As efforts to rule both territories while preserving Mongol identity, Kublai Khan
prohibited Mongols from marrying Chinese, but left both the Chinese and Tibetan legal and administrative systems intact. Though most government institutions established by Kublai Khan in his court resembled the ones in earlier Chinese dynasties, Tibet never adopted the imperial examination
s or Neo-Confucian policies.
Towards the end of the Yuan Dynasty
, Tibet regained its independence from the Mongols with the decline of the Yuan.
Prior to 1240
According to one traditional Tibetan account, the Mongol emperor Genghis KhanGenghis Khan
Genghis Khan , born Temujin and occasionally known by his temple name Taizu , was the founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death....
plotted to invade Tibet in 1206, but was dissuaded when the Tibetans promised to pay tribute to the Mongols. Modern scholars consider the account to be anachronistic and factually wrong. Genghis' campaign was targeted at the Tangut kingdom of Xixia
Xixia
Xixia may refer to:*Xixia County, county in Henan, China*Xixia District, in Yinchuan, Ningxia, China*Western Xia kingdom in China, 1038–1227...
, not Tibet, and there was certainly no tribute being paid to the Mongols prior to 1240. There is no evidence of interaction between the two nations prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion in 1240.
The earliest real Mongol contact with ethnic Tibetan people
Tibetan people
The Tibetan people are an ethnic group that is native to Tibet, which is mostly in the People's Republic of China. They number 5.4 million and are the 10th largest ethnic group in the country. Significant Tibetan minorities also live in India, Nepal, and Bhutan...
came in 1236, when a Tibetan chief near Wenxian submitted to the Mongols campaigning against the Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty may refer to:* Jin Dynasty , Chinese dynasty, subdivided into the Western and Eastern Jin periods* Later Jin Dynasty , one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China.* Jin Dynasty , a Jurchen kingdom in northern China* Later Jīn Dynasty, or...
in Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
.
1240
In 1240, the Mongol Prince Köten (Godan), Ogedei's son and GuyukGüyük Khan
Güyük was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. As the eldest son of Ögedei Khan and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he reigned from 1246 to 1248...
's younger brother, "delegated the command of the Tibetan invasion to the Tangut
Tangut
The Tangut identified with the state of Western Xia were traditionally thought of as a Qiangic-speaking people who moved to northwestern China sometime before the 10th century CE. Recent research indicated that the term "Tangut" most likely derives from Chinese Donghu; "-t" in the Mongolian...
general, Doorda Darqan (Dor-ta)". The expedition was "the first instance of military conflict between the two nations". The attack consisted of 30,000 men (most possibly much smaller than that) and resulted in 500 casualties, along with the burning of the Kadampa
Kadampa
The Kadampa tradition was a Tibetan Mahayana Buddhist school. Dromtönpa, a Tibetan lay master and the foremost disciple of the great Indian Buddhist Master Atisha , founded it and passed three lineages to his disciples. The Kadampa were quite famous and respected for their proper and earnest...
monasteries of Rwa-sgreṅ and Rgyal-lha-khang. The campaign was smaller than the full-scale invasions used by the Mongols against large empires. According to Turrell V. Wylie
Turrell V. Wylie
Turrell Verl Wylie was for many years Professor of Tibetan at the University of Washington and the first chair of the Department of Asian Languages and Literature...
, that much is in agreement among tibetologists. However, the purpose of invasion is disputed among Tibetan scholars, partly because of the abundance of anachronistic and factually erroneous sources.
However, modern studies find that the Mongol scouts burned Rwa-sgreng only. The bKa’-brgyud-pa monasteries of sTag-lung and
’Bri-gung, with their old link to the Xixia dynasty, were spared because Doorda himself was a Tangut Buddhist. The
’Bri-gung abbot suggested the Mongols invite the Sa-skya-pa hierarch, Sa-skya Pandita. After he met Köten, Sa-skya Pandita died there leaving his two nephews. Sa-skya Pandita convinced other monasteries in Central Tibet to align with the Mongols. The Mongols kept them as hostages referring symbolic surrender of Tibet.
One view, considered the most traditional, is that the attack was a retaliation on Tibet caused by the Tibetan refusal to pay tribute. Wylie points out that the Tibetans stopped paying tribute in 1227, while Doorda Darkhan's invasion was in 1240, suggesting that the Mongols, not known for their empathy, would not wait over a decade to respond. The text from which this claim is based on also makes other anachronistic mistakes, insisting that Genghis was planning to attack Tibet prior to Doorda Darkhan's invasion, when the real campaign was against the Tangut kingdom of Xixia
Xixia
Xixia may refer to:*Xixia County, county in Henan, China*Xixia District, in Yinchuan, Ningxia, China*Western Xia kingdom in China, 1038–1227...
.
Another theory, supported by Wylie, is that the military action was a reconnaissance
Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance is the military term for exploring beyond the area occupied by friendly forces to gain information about enemy forces or features of the environment....
campaign meant to evaluate the political situation in Tibet. The Mongols hoped to find a single monarch with whom they could threaten into submission, but instead found a Tibet that was religiously and politically divided, without a central government.
A third view is that the troops were sent as raids and "looting parties", and that the goal of the campaign was to pillage the "wealth amassed in the Tibetan monasteries". This is disputed, as the Mongols deliberately avoided attacking certain monasteries, a questionable decision if their only goal was profit.
Whatever the purpose of the invasion, the Mongols withdrew in 1241, as all the Mongol princes were recalled back to Mongolia in preparation for the appointment of a successor to Ogedai Khan. In 1244, the Mongols returned to Tibet. They invited a Tibetan lama, Sakya Pandita, to Godan's camp, where he agreed to capitulate Tibet, after the Mongols threatened a full-scale invasion of the region.
Putative invasion under Mongke Khan
Möngke Khan
Möngke Khan , born Möngke, , was the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from July 1, 1251 – August 11, 1259. He was the first Great Khan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to improve the administration of the Empire during his reign...
became Khagan
Khagan
Khagan or qagan , alternatively spelled kagan, khaghan, qaghan, or chagan, is a title of imperial rank in the Mongolian and Turkic languages equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate...
in the same year. Some sources say there was a Mongolian invasion in 1251, in retribution for a failure to pay tribute, or in 1251-2 'to take formal possession of the country'. In order to strengthen his control over Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
, Mongke made Qoridai commander of the Mongol and Han troops in Tufan in 1251. Two attacks are mentioned, one led by Dörbetei, the other by Qoridai, and the double campaign struck fear into the Tibetans. Tibetan sources however only mention an attack on a place called Bod kyi-mon-mkhar-mgpon-po-gdong,. Wyle is sceptical however of all of these sources, arguing that the lack of substantive evidence for an invasion raises doubts about the extent of Mongol movements in Tibet proper.' He concludes:-
'Excluding the 1252 attack against the unidentified Mon-mkmar-mgon-po-gdong mentioned earlier, there seems to be no evidence to prove the presence of Mongol troops in central Tibet during the two decades that 'Phags-pa Lama was away from Sa-skya (1244-65). During those years, external campaigns of conquest and internal feuds between scions of the sons of Chinggis Khan occupied the attention of the Mongols. Tibet, whose formidable terrain was politically fragmented by local lords and lamas, posed no military thereat to the Mongols, and it was all but ignored by them.'
In 1252-53 Qoridai invaded Tibet, reaching as far as Damxung. The Central Tibetian monasteries submitted to the Mongols. Mongke divided between his relatives as their appanage
Appanage
An apanage or appanage or is the grant of an estate, titles, offices, or other things of value to the younger male children of a sovereign, who would otherwise have no inheritance under the system of primogeniture...
s in accordance with Great Jasag
Yassa
Yassa was a secret written code of law created by Genghis Khan. It was the principal law under the Mongol Empire even though no copies were made available...
of Genghis Khan. Many Mongol aristocrats including Khagan himself seem to have sought blessings of prominent Tibetan lamas. Möngke Khan patronized Karma Baqshi (1204–83) of the Karma-pa suborder and the ’Bri-gung Monastery, while Hulegu, khan of the Mongols
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate , was a Mongol khanate established in Azerbaijan and Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire...
in the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
, sent lavish gifts to both ’Bri-gung and the Phag-mo-gru-pa suborder’s gDan-sa-thel monastery. Later William Rubruck report that he saw Chinese, Tibetan, and Indian Buddhist monks at the capital city, Karakourm, of the Mongol Empire.
Although, Karma of the Karma-pa sect politely refused to stay with him preferring his brother: the Khagan, in 1253 Prince Kubilai summoned to his court the Sa-skya-pa hierarch’s two nephews, Blo-gros rGyal-mtshan, known as ’Phags-Pa lama (1235–80), and Phyag-na rDo-rje (d. 1267) from the late Köten's ordo in Liangzhou. Khubilai Khan first met 'Phags-pa lama in 1253, presumably to bring the Sa-skya lama who resided in Köden's domain, and who was a symbol of Tibetan surrender, to his own camp. At first Kublai remained shamanist, but his chief khatun, Chabui (Chabi), converted to Buddhism and influenced Kublai's religious view. During Kublai's expedition into Yunnan, his number two, Uriyangkhadai, had to station in Tibet in 1254-55 possibly to supress war-like different tribes in Tibet.
In 1265 Qongridar ravaged the Tufan/mDo-smad area, and from 1264 to 1275 several campaigns pacified the Tibetan and Yi peoples of Xifan around modern Xichang. By 1278 Mongol myriarchies: tumens and postroads reached through mDo-khams as far west as Litang.
Aftermath
Tibet was incorporated into the Mongol Empire
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
under Mongolian administrative rule, but the region was granted with a degree of political autonomy. Kublai Khan would later include Tibet into his Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
, and the region remained administratively separate from the conquered provinces of Song Dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
China.
According to the Tibetan traditional view, the khan and the lama established "priest-patron" relations. This meant administrative management and military assistance from the khan and assistance from the lama in spiritual issues. Tibet was conquered by the Mongols before the Mongol invasion of South China. After the conquest of the Song Dynasty, Kublai Khan consolidated Tibet into the new Yuan Dynasty, but Tibet was ruled under the Xuanzheng Yuan, separate from the Chinese provinces. The Mongols granted the Sakya
Sakya
The Sakya school is one of four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the others being the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Gelug...
lama a degree political authority, but retained control over the administration and military of the region.
As efforts to rule both territories while preserving Mongol identity, Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan , born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu , was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China...
prohibited Mongols from marrying Chinese, but left both the Chinese and Tibetan legal and administrative systems intact. Though most government institutions established by Kublai Khan in his court resembled the ones in earlier Chinese dynasties, Tibet never adopted the imperial examination
Imperial examination
The Imperial examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of...
s or Neo-Confucian policies.
Towards the end of the Yuan Dynasty
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
, Tibet regained its independence from the Mongols with the decline of the Yuan.