Moral reasoning
Encyclopedia
Moral reasoning is a study in psychology
that overlaps with moral philosophy. It is also called moral development. Prominent contributors to theory include Lawrence Kohlberg
and Elliot Turiel
. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as obtain in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;" however, this sense is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning can be defined as being the process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic. This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Although all moral choice can be seen as personal choice, some choices can be seen as an economic choice, or an ethical choice described by some ethical code
or regulated by ethical relationship
s with others.
There are four components of moral behavior. The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others." The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation." The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome." The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out."
This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics
. There are many different moral reasonings. Moral reasoning is culturally defined, and thus is difficult to apply; yet human relationships define our existence and thus defy cultural boundaries.
is a psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development. According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality. Each of these is subdivided into two levels.
The first stage in the preconventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong. The second stage in the preconventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs.
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person. The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.
The fifth stage is a part of the postconventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society.
Moral reasoning is a study in psychology
that overlaps with moral philosophy. It is also called moral development. Prominent contributors to theory include Lawrence Kohlberg
and Elliot Turiel
. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as obtain in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;" however, this sense is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning can be defined as being the process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic. This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Although all moral choice can be seen as personal choice, some choices can be seen as an economic choice, or an ethical choice described by some ethical code
or regulated by ethical relationship
s with others.
There are four components of moral behavior. The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others."Lynn E. Swaner, "Ethical and Moral Reasoning," Educating for Personal and Social Responsibility, Position Paper, American Council of Colleges and Universities, September 13, 2004 (pdf), citing James Rest
, "Morality," in Cognitive Development, ed. John H. Flavell and Ellen M. Markman, Handbook of Child Psychology volume 3, 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 1983, ISBN 9780471090649, pp. 556–629. The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation." The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome." The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out."
This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics
. There are many different moral reasonings. Moral reasoning is culturally defined, and thus is difficult to apply; yet human relationships define our existence and thus defy cultural boundaries.
is a psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development. According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality. Each of these is subdivided into two levels.
The first stage in the preconventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong. The second stage in the preconventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs.
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person. The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.
The fifth stage is a part of the postconventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society.
Moral reasoning is a study in psychology
that overlaps with moral philosophy. It is also called moral development. Prominent contributors to theory include Lawrence Kohlberg
and Elliot Turiel
. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as obtain in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;" however, this sense is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning can be defined as being the process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic. This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Although all moral choice can be seen as personal choice, some choices can be seen as an economic choice, or an ethical choice described by some ethical code
or regulated by ethical relationship
s with others.
There are four components of moral behavior. The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others."Lynn E. Swaner, "Ethical and Moral Reasoning," Educating for Personal and Social Responsibility, Position Paper, American Council of Colleges and Universities, September 13, 2004 (pdf), citing James Rest
, "Morality," in Cognitive Development, ed. John H. Flavell and Ellen M. Markman, Handbook of Child Psychology volume 3, 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 1983, ISBN 9780471090649, pp. 556–629. The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation." The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome." The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out."
This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics
. There are many different moral reasonings. Moral reasoning is culturally defined, and thus is difficult to apply; yet human relationships define our existence and thus defy cultural boundaries.
is a psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development. According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality. Each of these is subdivided into two levels.
The first stage in the preconventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong. The second stage in the preconventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs.
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person. The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.
The fifth stage is a part of the postconventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society. The sixth and final stage of moral development, the second in the postconventional level, is called universal principles. At this stage people begin to develop their ideas of universal moral principles and will consider them the right thing to do regardless of what the laws of a society are.
. He developed two phases of moral development, one common among children and the other common among adults. The first is known as the Heteronomous Phase. Dead link. This phase, more common among children, is characterized by the idea that rules come from authority figures in one's life such as parents, teachers, and God. It also involves the idea that rules are permanent no matter what. Thirdly, this phase of moral development includes the belief that "naughty" behavior must always be punished and that the punishment will be proportional.
The second phase in Piaget's theory of moral development is referred to as the Autonomous Phase. This phase is more common after one has matured and is no longer a child. In this phase people begin to view the intentions behind actions as more important than their consequences. For instance, if a person who is driving swerves in order to not hit a dog and then knocks over a road sign, adults are likely to be less angry at the person than if he or she had done it on purpose just for fun. Even though the outcome is the same, people are more forgiving because of the good intention of saving the dog. This phase also includes the idea that people have different morals and that morality is not necessarily universal. People in the Autonomous Phase also believe rules may be broken under certain circumstances. For instance, Rosa Parks
broke the law by refusing to give up her seat on a bus, which was against the law but something many people consider moral nonetheless. In this phase people also stop believing in the idea of immanent justice.
and psychologist Jonathan Haidt
both claim that morality is based more on perceptions than on logical reasoning. This means that people's morality is based more on their emotions and feelings than on a logical analysis of any given situation. Hume regards morals as linked to passion, love, happiness, and other emotions and therefore not based on reason. Haidt agrees, arguing that reasoning concerning a moral situation or idea follows an initial intuition. Haidt's fundamental stance on moral reasoning is that "moral intuitions (including moral emotions) come first and directly cause moral judgments"; he characterizes a moral intuition as "the sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion".
Immanuel Kant
had a radically different view of morality. In his view, there are universal laws of morality that no one should ever break regardless of emotions. He proposed a four-step system to find out whether something was moral based on logic and reason. The first step of this method involves formulating "a maxim capturing your reason for an action". In the second step, one "frame[s] it as a universal principle for all rational agents". The third step is assessing "whether a world based on this universal principle is conceivable". If it is, then the fourth step is asking oneself "whether [one] would will the maxim to be a principle in this world". Basically what this means is that if everyone made this moral decision would it be good for the world or bad for the world. For instance, when deciding whether on not to lie to someone for one's own advantage, imagine if everyone in the world always successfully lied. Would that be good or bad for the world? Based on this logic, Kant would argue that no one should ever lie under any circumstances. Another example would be if trying to decide whether suicide is moral or immoral; imagine if everyone committed suicide. Since mass international suicide would not be a good thing, the act of suicide is immoral.
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
that overlaps with moral philosophy. It is also called moral development. Prominent contributors to theory include Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
and Elliot Turiel
Elliot Turiel
Elliot Turiel is an American psychologist and Chancellor’s Professor at the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley...
. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as obtain in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;" however, this sense is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning can be defined as being the process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic. This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Although all moral choice can be seen as personal choice, some choices can be seen as an economic choice, or an ethical choice described by some ethical code
Ethical code
An ethical code is adopted by an organization in an attempt to assist those in the organization called upon to make a decision understand the difference between 'right' and 'wrong' and to apply this understanding to their decision...
or regulated by ethical relationship
Ethical relationship
An ethical relationship, in most theories of ethics that employ the term, is a basic and trustworthy relationship that one has to another human being, that cannot necessarily be characterized in terms of any abstraction other than trust and common protection of each other's body...
s with others.
There are four components of moral behavior. The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others." The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation." The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome." The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out."
This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics, is the study of people's beliefs about morality. It contrasts with prescriptive or normative ethics, which is the study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act, and with meta-ethics, which is the study of what ethical terms...
. There are many different moral reasonings. Moral reasoning is culturally defined, and thus is difficult to apply; yet human relationships define our existence and thus defy cultural boundaries.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence KohlbergLawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
is a psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development. According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality. Each of these is subdivided into two levels.
The first stage in the preconventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong. The second stage in the preconventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs.
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person. The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.
The fifth stage is a part of the postconventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society.
Moral reasoning is a study in psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
that overlaps with moral philosophy. It is also called moral development. Prominent contributors to theory include Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
and Elliot Turiel
Elliot Turiel
Elliot Turiel is an American psychologist and Chancellor’s Professor at the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley...
. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as obtain in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;" however, this sense is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning can be defined as being the process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic. This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Although all moral choice can be seen as personal choice, some choices can be seen as an economic choice, or an ethical choice described by some ethical code
Ethical code
An ethical code is adopted by an organization in an attempt to assist those in the organization called upon to make a decision understand the difference between 'right' and 'wrong' and to apply this understanding to their decision...
or regulated by ethical relationship
Ethical relationship
An ethical relationship, in most theories of ethics that employ the term, is a basic and trustworthy relationship that one has to another human being, that cannot necessarily be characterized in terms of any abstraction other than trust and common protection of each other's body...
s with others.
There are four components of moral behavior. The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others."Lynn E. Swaner, "Ethical and Moral Reasoning," Educating for Personal and Social Responsibility, Position Paper, American Council of Colleges and Universities, September 13, 2004 (pdf), citing James Rest
James Rest
James Rest was a professor with the Department of Educational Psychology for the University of Minnesota. In 1982 he helped formally establish the Center for the Study of Ethical Development along with colleagues Muriel Bebeau, Darcia Narvaez and Steve Thoma...
, "Morality," in Cognitive Development, ed. John H. Flavell and Ellen M. Markman, Handbook of Child Psychology volume 3, 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 1983, ISBN 9780471090649, pp. 556–629. The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation." The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome." The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out."
This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics, is the study of people's beliefs about morality. It contrasts with prescriptive or normative ethics, which is the study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act, and with meta-ethics, which is the study of what ethical terms...
. There are many different moral reasonings. Moral reasoning is culturally defined, and thus is difficult to apply; yet human relationships define our existence and thus defy cultural boundaries.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence KohlbergLawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
is a psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development. According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality. Each of these is subdivided into two levels.
The first stage in the preconventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong. The second stage in the preconventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs.
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person. The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.
The fifth stage is a part of the postconventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society.
Moral reasoning is a study in psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
that overlaps with moral philosophy. It is also called moral development. Prominent contributors to theory include Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
and Elliot Turiel
Elliot Turiel
Elliot Turiel is an American psychologist and Chancellor’s Professor at the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley...
. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as obtain in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;" however, this sense is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning can be defined as being the process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic. This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing. Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
Although all moral choice can be seen as personal choice, some choices can be seen as an economic choice, or an ethical choice described by some ethical code
Ethical code
An ethical code is adopted by an organization in an attempt to assist those in the organization called upon to make a decision understand the difference between 'right' and 'wrong' and to apply this understanding to their decision...
or regulated by ethical relationship
Ethical relationship
An ethical relationship, in most theories of ethics that employ the term, is a basic and trustworthy relationship that one has to another human being, that cannot necessarily be characterized in terms of any abstraction other than trust and common protection of each other's body...
s with others.
There are four components of moral behavior. The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others."Lynn E. Swaner, "Ethical and Moral Reasoning," Educating for Personal and Social Responsibility, Position Paper, American Council of Colleges and Universities, September 13, 2004 (pdf), citing James Rest
James Rest
James Rest was a professor with the Department of Educational Psychology for the University of Minnesota. In 1982 he helped formally establish the Center for the Study of Ethical Development along with colleagues Muriel Bebeau, Darcia Narvaez and Steve Thoma...
, "Morality," in Cognitive Development, ed. John H. Flavell and Ellen M. Markman, Handbook of Child Psychology volume 3, 4th ed. New York: Wiley, 1983, ISBN 9780471090649, pp. 556–629. The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation." The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome." The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out."
This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics
Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics, is the study of people's beliefs about morality. It contrasts with prescriptive or normative ethics, which is the study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act, and with meta-ethics, which is the study of what ethical terms...
. There are many different moral reasonings. Moral reasoning is culturally defined, and thus is difficult to apply; yet human relationships define our existence and thus defy cultural boundaries.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence KohlbergLawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University. Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for his theory of stages of moral development...
is a psychologist who has made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development. According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality. Each of these is subdivided into two levels.
The first stage in the preconventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong. The second stage in the preconventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs.
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person. The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.
The fifth stage is a part of the postconventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society. The sixth and final stage of moral development, the second in the postconventional level, is called universal principles. At this stage people begin to develop their ideas of universal moral principles and will consider them the right thing to do regardless of what the laws of a society are.
Jean Piaget
Another psychologist who contributed to the field of moral reasoning was Jean PiagetJean Piaget
Jean Piaget was a French-speaking Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology"....
. He developed two phases of moral development, one common among children and the other common among adults. The first is known as the Heteronomous Phase. Dead link. This phase, more common among children, is characterized by the idea that rules come from authority figures in one's life such as parents, teachers, and God. It also involves the idea that rules are permanent no matter what. Thirdly, this phase of moral development includes the belief that "naughty" behavior must always be punished and that the punishment will be proportional.
The second phase in Piaget's theory of moral development is referred to as the Autonomous Phase. This phase is more common after one has matured and is no longer a child. In this phase people begin to view the intentions behind actions as more important than their consequences. For instance, if a person who is driving swerves in order to not hit a dog and then knocks over a road sign, adults are likely to be less angry at the person than if he or she had done it on purpose just for fun. Even though the outcome is the same, people are more forgiving because of the good intention of saving the dog. This phase also includes the idea that people have different morals and that morality is not necessarily universal. People in the Autonomous Phase also believe rules may be broken under certain circumstances. For instance, Rosa Parks
Rosa Parks
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was an African-American civil rights activist, whom the U.S. Congress called "the first lady of civil rights", and "the mother of the freedom movement"....
broke the law by refusing to give up her seat on a bus, which was against the law but something many people consider moral nonetheless. In this phase people also stop believing in the idea of immanent justice.
Moral reasoning in philosophy
Philosopher David HumeDavid Hume
David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He was one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment...
and psychologist Jonathan Haidt
Jonathan Haidt
Jonathan Haidt is a professor of psychology at the University of Virginia. His research focuses on the psychological bases of morality across different cultures and political ideology. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1992. He was awarded the Templeton Prize in Positive...
both claim that morality is based more on perceptions than on logical reasoning. This means that people's morality is based more on their emotions and feelings than on a logical analysis of any given situation. Hume regards morals as linked to passion, love, happiness, and other emotions and therefore not based on reason. Haidt agrees, arguing that reasoning concerning a moral situation or idea follows an initial intuition. Haidt's fundamental stance on moral reasoning is that "moral intuitions (including moral emotions) come first and directly cause moral judgments"; he characterizes a moral intuition as "the sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion".
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher from Königsberg , researching, lecturing and writing on philosophy and anthropology at the end of the 18th Century Enlightenment....
had a radically different view of morality. In his view, there are universal laws of morality that no one should ever break regardless of emotions. He proposed a four-step system to find out whether something was moral based on logic and reason. The first step of this method involves formulating "a maxim capturing your reason for an action". In the second step, one "frame[s] it as a universal principle for all rational agents". The third step is assessing "whether a world based on this universal principle is conceivable". If it is, then the fourth step is asking oneself "whether [one] would will the maxim to be a principle in this world". Basically what this means is that if everyone made this moral decision would it be good for the world or bad for the world. For instance, when deciding whether on not to lie to someone for one's own advantage, imagine if everyone in the world always successfully lied. Would that be good or bad for the world? Based on this logic, Kant would argue that no one should ever lie under any circumstances. Another example would be if trying to decide whether suicide is moral or immoral; imagine if everyone committed suicide. Since mass international suicide would not be a good thing, the act of suicide is immoral.