Movement of 1977
Encyclopedia
The movement of 1977 was a spontaneous political movement that arose in Italy
in 1977. It originated mostly from groups of extra-parliamentary left; as for form and substance, it was completely new compared to previous student movements, such as the protests of 1968
. In fact, it was characterized by the declared objection to the system of parties, unions, and even political movements.
family could attend a university, which, until then, had been a privilege held almost exclusively by students from more affluent classes.
After a decade of disputes in schools and in society, the rigor of the old revolutionary groups appeared inadequate and outdated. Indeed, the protests were also addressed at the political practice of those organizations from which the participants in the movement of '77 originated. Moreover, the feminist movement, which since the early '70s had had a very strong growth, was present in the movement with its instances of sexual liberation.
Another important aspect was the political action of Marco Pannella
's Radical Party. Pannella, after the victory in the 1974 referendum for divorce, had greatly enlarged the ranks of his party, and concentrated their efforts on human rights, civil rights, pacifism and nonviolence. Among the Radical Party's goals was also a struggle against authoritarianism and repression, the gay liberation and the anti-prohibitionism of drugs
. At that time, underground culture and counterculture newspapers, such as the magazine Re Nudo (The Naked King) founded in 1969 in Milan by a group of hippies, started being printed. These had organized two large pop rallies (named Youth Festival of the proletariat) in Parco Lambro, Milan
, somewhat modeled on the Woodstock festival
(1969).
The culture also passed through the so-called free radios, born after the liberalization of broadcasting in 1976. Internationally, in 1977 there came the "first wave" of punk subculture
called "Punk 77", particularly relating to British scene (British Punk) and American (American punk). In this context a complex movement, libertarian and creative, was born where there were no leaders and where involvement and responsibility were closely personal, although a leading role in the struggles continued being played by the now dissolved Lotta Continua
militants, and especially by the area of autonomy.
The movement of '77 involved some marginalized sectors of society in large cities, such as those living in slums. The movement was committed to counter the circulation of heroin, through information campaigns and by fighting trafficking.
, the extra-parliamentary leftist movement which advocated armed struggle in the streets instead, finally severed their ties to the Italian Communist Party
(PCI), strongly contesting the policy of the historic compromise
, and the perceived abandonment of the opposition to bourgeois power.
On February 17, 1977, Luciano Lama, secretary-general of the CGIL, the trade union closest to the PCI, gave a speech inside the occupied La Sapienza University. During the speech, the autonomi (members of Autonomia Operaia) and the CGIL's security service had a violent clash, that resulted in Lama being chased away. The event would become famous and remembered as The expulsion of Lama from La Sapienza university. The clash between the PCI and Autonomia made the more radical current within Autonomia stronger. The creative current, which included extravagant components, such as the Indiani Metropolitani
movement, found themselves in a minority. Some of the autonomi decided that the time had come to alzare il livello dello scontro (to raise the level of the conflict), in other words, to start using firearms.
was the scene of violent street clashes. In particular, on March 11 a militant of Lotta Continua - Francesco Lorusso - was killed by a gunshot to the back (probably fired by a policeman), during charges to disperse a group of persons who had organized a protest against the assembly of Communion and Liberation
, which was held that morning at the university. This event served as a detonator for a long series of clashes with security forces for two days, that affected the entire city of Bologna.
The interior Minister Francesco Cossiga
, to stop what he perceived as guerrilla, sent armored vehicles in the university area and other hot spots of the city. Those clashes with the police caused numerous victims, also among the population.
Turin
was also the scene of bloody clashes and attacks. On October 1, 1977, after a procession had started with the attack of the headquarters of the Italian Social Movement
(MSI), a group of militants of Lotta Continua reached a downtown bar, L'angelo azzurro (The Blue Angel), frequented by young right-wing activists. Following the launch of two Molotov cocktail
s, Roberto Crescenzio, a totally apolitical student, died of burns. The perpetrators of the murder were never identified. A leader of Lotta Continua, Silvio Viale, called the fact a "tragic accident".
Another innocent victim of the riots of that year was Giorgiana Masi, who was killed in Rome by a gunshot during an event organized by the Radical Party to celebrate the third anniversary of the victory in the referendum on divorce. As the perpetrators of the murder remained unknown, the movement attributed the responsibility of the crime to police officers in plain clothes, which were immortalized at that time dressed in clothing of the style of young people of the movement.
kidnapping prompted many members of leftist groups outside Parliament to follow the contents in the motto suggested in newspaper of Lotta Continua: "Né con lo stato, né con le Brigate Rosse" (Neither with the State, nor with the Red Brigades
). Several young people joined in the armed struggle while others retreated into parliamentary parties. Others – disillusioned and in despair – turned to mysticism, Eastern philosophies and some withdrew into a community for alternative lifestyles. The rest of the movement, as had been intended by the late sixties, disappeared entirely, leaving a single organization, Democrazia Proletaria (Proletarian Democracy
), which, after the parliamentary choice, sided to the left of PCI becoming a reference point for some young people involved in politics in the eighties. Several leaders and celebrities of the movement, veterans of the early experience of the Sixties, as the last editor of the newspapers of Lotta Continua, joined the nascent Italian green movement
. Others joined the old parties (especially the Italian Socialist Party
– PSI), devoting themselves to their careers: in practice, joining the nascent movement of yuppies.
At the same time other new realities of youth political struggle were born; they were very localized and underground as the Centri Sociali, which, in turn, then gave birth to the Italian anti-globalization movement
.
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
in 1977. It originated mostly from groups of extra-parliamentary left; as for form and substance, it was completely new compared to previous student movements, such as the protests of 1968
Protests of 1968
The protests of 1968 consisted of a worldwide series of protests, largely participated in by students and workers.-Background:Background speculations of overall causality vary about the political protests centering on the year 1968. Some argue that protests could be attributed to the social changes...
. In fact, it was characterized by the declared objection to the system of parties, unions, and even political movements.
Historical and social context
The movement arose in conjunction with the crisis of the extra-parliamentary organizations that led to social struggles in the years after the 1968, together with the so-called mass university: after the 1969 school reform, also young people from proletariatProletariat
The proletariat is a term used to identify a lower social class, usually the working class; a member of such a class is proletarian...
family could attend a university, which, until then, had been a privilege held almost exclusively by students from more affluent classes.
After a decade of disputes in schools and in society, the rigor of the old revolutionary groups appeared inadequate and outdated. Indeed, the protests were also addressed at the political practice of those organizations from which the participants in the movement of '77 originated. Moreover, the feminist movement, which since the early '70s had had a very strong growth, was present in the movement with its instances of sexual liberation.
Another important aspect was the political action of Marco Pannella
Marco Pannella
Giacinto Pannella, better known as Marco Pannella is an Italian politician.He is the historic leader of the Italian Radicals...
's Radical Party. Pannella, after the victory in the 1974 referendum for divorce, had greatly enlarged the ranks of his party, and concentrated their efforts on human rights, civil rights, pacifism and nonviolence. Among the Radical Party's goals was also a struggle against authoritarianism and repression, the gay liberation and the anti-prohibitionism of drugs
DRUGS
Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows are an American post-hardcore band formed in 2010. They released their debut self-titled album on February 22, 2011.- Formation :...
. At that time, underground culture and counterculture newspapers, such as the magazine Re Nudo (The Naked King) founded in 1969 in Milan by a group of hippies, started being printed. These had organized two large pop rallies (named Youth Festival of the proletariat) in Parco Lambro, Milan
Milan
Milan is the second-largest city in Italy and the capital city of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while its urban area, roughly coinciding with its administrative province and the bordering Province of Monza and Brianza ,...
, somewhat modeled on the Woodstock festival
Woodstock Festival
Woodstock Music & Art Fair was a music festival, billed as "An Aquarian Exposition: 3 Days of Peace & Music". It was held at Max Yasgur's 600-acre dairy farm in the Catskills near the hamlet of White Lake in the town of Bethel, New York, from August 15 to August 18, 1969...
(1969).
The culture also passed through the so-called free radios, born after the liberalization of broadcasting in 1976. Internationally, in 1977 there came the "first wave" of punk subculture
Punk subculture
The punk subculture includes a diverse array of ideologies, and forms of expression, including fashion, visual art, dance, literature, and film, which grew out of punk rock.-History:...
called "Punk 77", particularly relating to British scene (British Punk) and American (American punk). In this context a complex movement, libertarian and creative, was born where there were no leaders and where involvement and responsibility were closely personal, although a leading role in the struggles continued being played by the now dissolved Lotta Continua
Lotta Continua
Lotta Continua was a far left extra-parliamentary organization in Italy. It was founded in autumn 1969 by a split in the student-worker movement of Turin, which had started militant activity at the universities and factories such as Fiat...
militants, and especially by the area of autonomy.
Political actions
Some of the practices of struggle that characterized the movement were formalized during the 70s and tended to propose a model of direct action where change was to take place immediately, with the reappropriation of goods and areas claimed as a right. Occupation of vacant and / or abandoned houses, proletarian expropriations, one-sided reduction of bills and services in general (from cinema to catering operations), became the typical practices of the movement, which stood alongside the separate actions of extra-parliamentary left as militant anti-fascism.The movement of '77 involved some marginalized sectors of society in large cities, such as those living in slums. The movement was committed to counter the circulation of heroin, through information campaigns and by fighting trafficking.
The break with the institutional left
In 1977, the creative and peaceful wing of the movement and Autonomia OperaiaAutonomia Operaia
Autonomia Operaia was an Italian extra-parliamentary leftist movement particularly active from 1976 to 1978. It emerged in 1972 not as a party but rather as a place of encounter among various extra-parliamentary and revolutionary left-wing tendencies opposed to reformism...
, the extra-parliamentary leftist movement which advocated armed struggle in the streets instead, finally severed their ties to the Italian Communist Party
Italian Communist Party
The Italian Communist Party was a communist political party in Italy.The PCI was founded as Communist Party of Italy on 21 January 1921 in Livorno, by seceding from the Italian Socialist Party . Amadeo Bordiga and Antonio Gramsci led the split. Outlawed during the Fascist regime, the party played...
(PCI), strongly contesting the policy of the historic compromise
Historic Compromise
In Italian history, the Historic Compromise was an accommodation between the Christian Democrats and the Italian Communist Party in the 1970s, after the latter embraced eurocommunism under Enrico Berlinguer. The 1978 assassination of DC leader Aldo Moro put an end to the Compromesso storico...
, and the perceived abandonment of the opposition to bourgeois power.
On February 17, 1977, Luciano Lama, secretary-general of the CGIL, the trade union closest to the PCI, gave a speech inside the occupied La Sapienza University. During the speech, the autonomi (members of Autonomia Operaia) and the CGIL's security service had a violent clash, that resulted in Lama being chased away. The event would become famous and remembered as The expulsion of Lama from La Sapienza university. The clash between the PCI and Autonomia made the more radical current within Autonomia stronger. The creative current, which included extravagant components, such as the Indiani Metropolitani
Indiani Metropolitani
Indiani Metropolitani were a small faction active in the Italian far-left protest movement during 1976 and 1977, in the so called "Years Of Lead".- Background :...
movement, found themselves in a minority. Some of the autonomi decided that the time had come to alzare il livello dello scontro (to raise the level of the conflict), in other words, to start using firearms.
The riots
That year, the city of BolognaBologna
Bologna is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna, in the Po Valley of Northern Italy. The city lies between the Po River and the Apennine Mountains, more specifically, between the Reno River and the Savena River. Bologna is a lively and cosmopolitan Italian college city, with spectacular history,...
was the scene of violent street clashes. In particular, on March 11 a militant of Lotta Continua - Francesco Lorusso - was killed by a gunshot to the back (probably fired by a policeman), during charges to disperse a group of persons who had organized a protest against the assembly of Communion and Liberation
Communion and Liberation
Communion and Liberation, or CL, is a lay ecclesial movement within the Catholic Church.-Overview:CL grew out of the educational and catechetical methods of Msgr. Luigi Giussani, who founded the movement...
, which was held that morning at the university. This event served as a detonator for a long series of clashes with security forces for two days, that affected the entire city of Bologna.
The interior Minister Francesco Cossiga
Francesco Cossiga
Francesco Cossiga was an Italian politician, the 43rd Prime Minister and the eighth President of the Italian Republic. He was also a professor of constitutional law at the University of Sassari....
, to stop what he perceived as guerrilla, sent armored vehicles in the university area and other hot spots of the city. Those clashes with the police caused numerous victims, also among the population.
Turin
Turin
Turin is a city and major business and cultural centre in northern Italy, capital of the Piedmont region, located mainly on the left bank of the Po River and surrounded by the Alpine arch. The population of the city proper is 909,193 while the population of the urban area is estimated by Eurostat...
was also the scene of bloody clashes and attacks. On October 1, 1977, after a procession had started with the attack of the headquarters of the Italian Social Movement
Italian Social Movement
The Italian Social Movement , and later the Italian Social Movement–National Right , was a neo-fascist and post-fascist political party in Italy. Formed in 1946 by supporters of former Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, the party became the fourth largest party in Italy by the early 1960s...
(MSI), a group of militants of Lotta Continua reached a downtown bar, L'angelo azzurro (The Blue Angel), frequented by young right-wing activists. Following the launch of two Molotov cocktail
Molotov cocktail
The Molotov cocktail, also known as the petrol bomb, gasoline bomb, Molotov bomb, fire bottle, fire bomb, or simply Molotov, is a generic name used for a variety of improvised incendiary weapons...
s, Roberto Crescenzio, a totally apolitical student, died of burns. The perpetrators of the murder were never identified. A leader of Lotta Continua, Silvio Viale, called the fact a "tragic accident".
Another innocent victim of the riots of that year was Giorgiana Masi, who was killed in Rome by a gunshot during an event organized by the Radical Party to celebrate the third anniversary of the victory in the referendum on divorce. As the perpetrators of the murder remained unknown, the movement attributed the responsibility of the crime to police officers in plain clothes, which were immortalized at that time dressed in clothing of the style of young people of the movement.
The end of movement
In the late seventies the movement had exhausted their initial spontaneous momentum. The MoroAldo Moro
Aldo Moro was an Italian politician and the 39th Prime Minister of Italy, from 1963 to 1968, and then from 1974 to 1976. He was one of Italy's longest-serving post-war Prime Ministers, holding power for a combined total of more than six years....
kidnapping prompted many members of leftist groups outside Parliament to follow the contents in the motto suggested in newspaper of Lotta Continua: "Né con lo stato, né con le Brigate Rosse" (Neither with the State, nor with the Red Brigades
Red Brigades
The Red Brigades was a Marxist-Leninist terrorist organisation, based in Italy, which was responsible for numerous violent incidents, assassinations, and robberies during the so-called "Years of Lead"...
). Several young people joined in the armed struggle while others retreated into parliamentary parties. Others – disillusioned and in despair – turned to mysticism, Eastern philosophies and some withdrew into a community for alternative lifestyles. The rest of the movement, as had been intended by the late sixties, disappeared entirely, leaving a single organization, Democrazia Proletaria (Proletarian Democracy
Proletarian Democracy
Proletarian Democracy was a political party in Italy.-1970s:DP was founded in 1975 as a joint electoral front of the Proletarian Unity Party , Workers Vanguard and the Workers Movement for Socialism...
), which, after the parliamentary choice, sided to the left of PCI becoming a reference point for some young people involved in politics in the eighties. Several leaders and celebrities of the movement, veterans of the early experience of the Sixties, as the last editor of the newspapers of Lotta Continua, joined the nascent Italian green movement
Green politics
Green politics is a political ideology that aims for the creation of an ecologically sustainable society rooted in environmentalism, social liberalism, and grassroots democracy...
. Others joined the old parties (especially the Italian Socialist Party
Italian Socialist Party
The Italian Socialist Party was a socialist and later social-democratic political party in Italy founded in Genoa in 1892.Once the dominant leftist party in Italy, it was eclipsed in status by the Italian Communist Party following World War II...
– PSI), devoting themselves to their careers: in practice, joining the nascent movement of yuppies.
At the same time other new realities of youth political struggle were born; they were very localized and underground as the Centri Sociali, which, in turn, then gave birth to the Italian anti-globalization movement
Anti-globalization movement
The anti-globalization movement, or counter-globalisation movement, is critical of the globalization of corporate capitalism. The movement is also commonly referred to as the global justice movement, alter-globalization movement, anti-globalist movement, anti-corporate globalization movement, or...
.