Mubarak Al-Sabah
Encyclopedia
Mubarak bin Sabah Al-Sabah, KCSI
, KCIE
(1844 - November 28, 1915) "the Great" was the ruler of Kuwait
from May 18, 1896 until his death on November 28, 1915. Mubarak ascended the throne upon the controversial death of his half-brother, Muhammad Al-Sabah
. Mubarak was the seventh ruler of the Al-Sabah
dynasty. Mubarak was also the father of two rulers of Kuwait that succeeded him, Jaber
and Salim
, from which the Al-Jaber and Al-Salim in the Al-Sabah family branches originated from respectively.
Sheikh
Mubarak signed the Anglo-Kuwaiti Treaty with Great Britain on November 23, 1899, pledging himself and his successors not to receive foreign agent
s or representatives or to cede or sell territory without the approval of the British government, with this agreement, and the guarantee it represented in Kuwait and the Al-Sabah family, he is regarded as the founder of modern day Kuwait.
campaigns; most notably: 1871, 1892, and 1894 campaigns into Hasa, Qatar, and southern Iraq. For his long service Mubarak received the title istabl-i amire payesi, “(Rank of) The Grand Equerry of his Imperial Majesty” in August 1879 for a campaign into Qatif and southern Iraq. He was for more Ottoman honors as reward for his services in the Qatar campaign, though the value of his contributions are disputed. Although Mubarak was widely known for his ties with the British after his ascension to sheikhdom in 1896, he did have interactions with the British as early as 1863 when he met Sir Lewis Pelly, British political resident of Persia who went on many diplomatic missions around the region, and in 1883 when he was sent on a Ottoman diplomatic mission to Bahrain.
However, B.J. Slot, who is not even convinced that Mubarak was the assassin, asserts that “the widely divergent stories and interpretations… make it impossible to reach a firm conclusion about what happened in Kuwait in 1896.” Slot notes that on a local level there was a lack of support for people who claimed that Mubarak assassinated his half-brothers and that if he had indeed done it revenge would have been taken on him. Yet news of Mubarak’s supposed assassination plot spread throughout the Ottoman Empire and abroad, which proved a serious obstacle in establishing his legitimacy as a ruler.
[sub governor] of Kuwait like his previous brothers. This is further illustrated through a memorandum by Captain J.F. Whyte, a British agent stationed in Basra
: “Sheikh Mubarak has, since his usurpation, been employing his late brother’s wealth to secure his recognition as Sheikh and his appointment as Kaimakam of Koweit by the Sublime Porte.” Mubarak constantly avowed his loyalty to Istanbul, but a bitter debate raged among the ruling Ottoman Council on what course of action to take with Mubarak and his apparent fratricide. The debates were fueled by a lack of information and confusing accounts surrounding Mubarak, partly because of Mubarak’s own manipulation and spread of disinformation. Some Ottoman officers considered military action in Kuwait as a solution to the problem, especially Hamdi Pasha the Wali
of Basra, who purposed an intervention from Basra into Kuwait.
The Ottomans were very hesitant to name Mubarak as kaymakam, but he was given the title on December 1897 in large part due to a controversy that exploded. The resolution passed due to a controversy and conspiracy that involved Mubarak and Basra’s government regarding Mubarak’s rival, Yusuf al-Ibrahim, who may have taken British-financed bribes. The controversy further destabilized relations in the region to dangerous levels. Because of the tension and instability of the situation the Ottoman Council decided that naming Mubarak kaymakam would be a better alternative to potentially bloody military action. Another reason was that military intervention may have further destabilized the region and destroyed any support that the Ottomans had with the Kuwaiti people. Finally, the Ottomans also had growing anxiety over possible encroachment by the Great Powers, most notably Britain and Russia into the region due to the construction of the Baghdad Railway
. They thought that bestowing the title could dissuade any foreign powers from interfering with Kuwait.
The long Ottoman indecisiveness in naming Mubarak kaymakam, as well as feelings of vulnerability helped pave the way for Mubarak to pursue British ties. On January 18, 1899 Mubarak signed a secret agreement with Major M.J. Meade, British political resident in Bushire, that guarded Kuwait against any outside foreign aggression. It also required Mubarak and his successors not to receive foreign agents or representatives or to cede or sell territory without the approval of the British government. Meade was eager to establish Kuwait as an official British protectorate
with the intention of extending British influence further into the Gulf and protecting its own trade as well as controlling the potential terminus for a purposed railway from Port Said
and the prevention of a possible Ottoman or Russian takeover of Kuwait. However, neither Mubarak nor other British officials wanted to make Kuwait a protectorate. As a private letter from Sir Arthur Godley, Permanent Under-Secretary of India, wrote to Lord Curzon “…we don’t want Koweit, but we don’t want anyone else to have it.” Mubarak’s British protection made him free to secure and strengthen his own power without fear of any outside interference from the Ottomans, surrounding tribes, or the Russians.
(Central Arabia) with an army of Kuwaiti townspeople, Saudi loyalists, and Bedouins from every important eastern Arabian tribe. The objective was to claim the southern portion of the Rashidi
dominions in hopes that Mubarak’s dream of becoming the new, undisputed Arabian leader would be realized. The campaign was moderately successful until the Battle of Sarif on March 17, 1901 where most of Mubarak’s force was destroyed, including the deaths of his brother and two nephews. This marked not only the end of Mubarak’s dream but also put him on the verge of losing control of Kuwait. However, B.J. Slot challenges Anscombe’s claim that Mubarak had a dream of being the Arab leader of the Arabian Peninsula; rather, Slot contends, it was a maneuver to contain and balance the power in the region that resulted from an alliance between the Rashidi Amir in al-awadhi, Mubarak’s enemy Yusuf Al-Ibrahim, and the Baghdad Military Command.
Mubarak’s major defeat at Sarif severely threatened his rule. He requested on May 28, 1901 for British protectorate status (the British were still debating the meaning of the 1899 Agreement, and it was a secret anyway), but it was denied due to the international tensions surrounding Kuwait. The Ottomans tried to capitalize on Mubarak’s major defeat by deliberating a military solution to gain direct control of Kuwait. The Ottomans slowly realized that the growing British presence around Kuwait was a sign of Mubarak’s secret dealing with the British. The Ottomans attempted to firmly reestablish their control and influence by opening up customs and harbormaster posts. Through these posts the Ottomans tried to forcefully compel Mubarak to accept the new Ottoman presence, therefore showing real loyalty to the Ottomans. However, the British publicly reinforced Kuwait as they began solidifying the meaning of the 1899 Agreement. This showdown caused a crisis between the Ottomans and the British over Kuwait’s status as a state.
. Mubarak as well, in October 1907 sold the rights for any terminus railroad sites to the British, compromising the German-Ottoman plan to extend the Berlin-Baghdad Railway
to the port, which would have given them access to trade on the Indian subcontinent. In exchange Mubarak received £4000 per year and a promise that Britain would recognize Kuwait’s autonomy and the Sheikh’s power over it.
Mubarak also engaged in affairs concerning the neighboring areas around him, which caused consternation on both the Ottoman and the British sides. Mubarak supported and smuggled British guns to local Arabian leaders. In 1904-1906, while the Ottoman military occupied the important sub-region of al-Qasim in central Najd, Mubarak supported the Ottoman’s opponent Ibn Sa’ud giving him strong “strong moral and material” support. In 1905 Mubarak also served as a mediator between the Saudis and the Ottomans, while simultaneously shaping Saudi strategy during the negotiations. A sign that the Ottoman attitude toward Mubarak was changing occurred in 1911 when in a draft message to Mubarak he was addressed not as “Kaymakam of Kuwait” but rather “Ruler of Kuwait and Chief of its Tribes.” This change in attitude, which included other pressures and troubles for the Ottoman Empire including the British lobbying on Kuwait’s behalf, led to the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913
, which recognized Kuwait as an autonomous kaza of the Ottoman Empire.
By the time World War I began Mubarak closely sided with the British against the Ottomans, and the 1913 Convention was rendered null. In support of the war effort Mubarak sent a force to Umm Qasr
, Safwan
, Bubiyan, and Basra to expel the Ottomans in November 1914. In exchange the British government recognized Kuwait as an “independent government under British protection.” There is no report on the exact size and nature of Mubarak’s attack, though Ottoman forces did retreat from those positions weeks later. Mubarak soon removed the Ottoman symbol that was on the Kuwaiti flag and replaced it with “Kuwait” written in Arabic script. Mubarak’s participation and previous exploits in obstructing the completion of the Baghdad railway helped the British safeguard the Persian Gulf from preventing Ottoman and German reinforcements.
ascended to the throne without any problems and when Jaber died his brother Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah
took over. Since then to the present day all of Kuwait’s rulers have been direct descendants of Mubarak through his two sons. Mubarak’s skillful diplomacy and manipulation of the Ottomans and British strengthened his powerbase ensuring Kuwait’s eventual independence. Mubarak’s interference in tribal affairs and the example he made of himself destabilized the region in that it eventually broke the Ottoman hold over the Persian Gulf. Other rulers in the Gulf were inspired or influenced by Mubarak to take similar actions, many allying strongly with the British. Mubarak established not only the foundations of modern Kuwait but was a key person in the establishment of the modern Persian Gulf
.
Order of the Star of India
The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria in 1861. The Order includes members of three classes:# Knight Grand Commander # Knight Commander # Companion...
, KCIE
Order of the Indian Empire
The Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria in 1878. The Order includes members of three classes:#Knight Grand Commander #Knight Commander #Companion...
(1844 - November 28, 1915) "the Great" was the ruler of Kuwait
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
from May 18, 1896 until his death on November 28, 1915. Mubarak ascended the throne upon the controversial death of his half-brother, Muhammad Al-Sabah
Muhammad Al-Sabah
Sheikh Muhammad al-Sabah Al-Sabah was the sixth Sheikh of Kuwait from the Al-Sabah dynasty. He ruled between May 1892 and May 17, 1896 during which he held the title of Pasha from the Ottoman Sultan. He was the second son of Sabah II Al-Sabah and succeeded his half-brother Abdullah II Al-Sabah...
. Mubarak was the seventh ruler of the Al-Sabah
Al-Sabah
The House of Al Sabah is the ruling family of Kuwait. They are a clan from the Anizah tribe which migrated to Kuwait in the early 18th century from Najd . They are also from the Utub tribe. After reaching Kuwait, they entered in an alliance with the other families of the Utub such as Al-Khalifa...
dynasty. Mubarak was also the father of two rulers of Kuwait that succeeded him, Jaber
Jaber II Al-Sabah
Sheikh Jaber II Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah, CSI, was the eighth Sheikh of Kuwait from the Al-Sabah line. He was the eldest son of Mubarak Al-Sabah and is the ancestor of the Al-Jaber branch of the Al-Sabah family...
and Salim
Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah
Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah, CSI was the ninth sheikh of Kuwait of the line of Al-Sabah. He was the second son of Mubarak Al-Sabah and is the ancestor of the Al-Salem branch of the Al-Sabah family. He ruled from February 5, 1917 to February 22, 1921. Prior to his ascension, he served as the...
, from which the Al-Jaber and Al-Salim in the Al-Sabah family branches originated from respectively.
Sheikh
Sheikh
Not to be confused with sikhSheikh — also spelled Sheik or Shaikh, or transliterated as Shaykh — is an honorific in the Arabic language that literally means "elder" and carries the meaning "leader and/or governor"...
Mubarak signed the Anglo-Kuwaiti Treaty with Great Britain on November 23, 1899, pledging himself and his successors not to receive foreign agent
Foreign agent
A foreign agent is anyone who actively carries out the interests of a foreign country while located in another host country, but generally outside the protections offered to those working in their official capacity for a diplomatic mission. Foreign agents may be citizens of the host country...
s or representatives or to cede or sell territory without the approval of the British government, with this agreement, and the guarantee it represented in Kuwait and the Al-Sabah family, he is regarded as the founder of modern day Kuwait.
Early life
Mubarak was born into Kuwaiti’s powerful al-Sabah family in 1837 son of Sheikh Subah Al-Sabah (r. 1859-1866). Once he was older Mubarak served primarily as a military leader in many tribal operations, including several OttomanOttoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
campaigns; most notably: 1871, 1892, and 1894 campaigns into Hasa, Qatar, and southern Iraq. For his long service Mubarak received the title istabl-i amire payesi, “(Rank of) The Grand Equerry of his Imperial Majesty” in August 1879 for a campaign into Qatif and southern Iraq. He was for more Ottoman honors as reward for his services in the Qatar campaign, though the value of his contributions are disputed. Although Mubarak was widely known for his ties with the British after his ascension to sheikhdom in 1896, he did have interactions with the British as early as 1863 when he met Sir Lewis Pelly, British political resident of Persia who went on many diplomatic missions around the region, and in 1883 when he was sent on a Ottoman diplomatic mission to Bahrain.
Death of Muhammad and Jarrah Al-Sabah
On May 8, 1896 Mubarak’s half-brothers, Muhammad and Jarrah, was killed by him enabling Mubarak’s assumption of the Kuwaiti throne. Most scholars believe that Mubarak assassinated his half-brothers, but the details of the assassination vary widely. Jill Crystal posits that Mubarak, with his sons Jabir and Salim and loyal supporters assassinated, his half-brothers in secret during the night. Frederick Anscombe also states that Mubarak “and his men” (not specified whether his sons were in on the plot) killed his brothers in the early hours of the day. There are several possible theories as to why Mubarak may have assassinated his half-brothers. One theory is that Mubarak resented being constantly sent away on tribal expeditions out into the desert. A second related theory is that Muhammad did not adequately fund Mubarak’s expeditions. The third theory is that Muhammad was a weak and “indolent” leader whose unpopularity in Kuwait necessitated his removal. The most plausible theory is that Mubarak felt he did not receive his rightful share of the family wealth and property, causing contention and a strong desire to seize it. Mubarak simply wanted power.However, B.J. Slot, who is not even convinced that Mubarak was the assassin, asserts that “the widely divergent stories and interpretations… make it impossible to reach a firm conclusion about what happened in Kuwait in 1896.” Slot notes that on a local level there was a lack of support for people who claimed that Mubarak assassinated his half-brothers and that if he had indeed done it revenge would have been taken on him. Yet news of Mubarak’s supposed assassination plot spread throughout the Ottoman Empire and abroad, which proved a serious obstacle in establishing his legitimacy as a ruler.
The struggle for legitimacy
Mubarak acted quickly to bribe the Ottoman bureaucracy through lavish gift giving in order to gain support for his appointment as kaymakamKaymakam
Qaim Maqam or Qaimaqam or Kaymakam is the title used for the governor of a provincial district in the Republic of Turkey, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and in Lebanon; additionally, it was a title used for roughly the same official position in the Ottoman...
[sub governor] of Kuwait like his previous brothers. This is further illustrated through a memorandum by Captain J.F. Whyte, a British agent stationed in Basra
Basra
Basra is the capital of Basra Governorate, in southern Iraq near Kuwait and Iran. It had an estimated population of two million as of 2009...
: “Sheikh Mubarak has, since his usurpation, been employing his late brother’s wealth to secure his recognition as Sheikh and his appointment as Kaimakam of Koweit by the Sublime Porte.” Mubarak constantly avowed his loyalty to Istanbul, but a bitter debate raged among the ruling Ottoman Council on what course of action to take with Mubarak and his apparent fratricide. The debates were fueled by a lack of information and confusing accounts surrounding Mubarak, partly because of Mubarak’s own manipulation and spread of disinformation. Some Ottoman officers considered military action in Kuwait as a solution to the problem, especially Hamdi Pasha the Wali
Wali
Walī , is an Arabic word meaning "custodian", "protector", "sponsor", or authority as denoted by its definition "crown". "Wali" is someone who has "Walayah" over somebody else. For example, in Fiqh the father is wali of his children. In Islam, the phrase ولي الله walīyu 'llāh...
of Basra, who purposed an intervention from Basra into Kuwait.
The Ottomans were very hesitant to name Mubarak as kaymakam, but he was given the title on December 1897 in large part due to a controversy that exploded. The resolution passed due to a controversy and conspiracy that involved Mubarak and Basra’s government regarding Mubarak’s rival, Yusuf al-Ibrahim, who may have taken British-financed bribes. The controversy further destabilized relations in the region to dangerous levels. Because of the tension and instability of the situation the Ottoman Council decided that naming Mubarak kaymakam would be a better alternative to potentially bloody military action. Another reason was that military intervention may have further destabilized the region and destroyed any support that the Ottomans had with the Kuwaiti people. Finally, the Ottomans also had growing anxiety over possible encroachment by the Great Powers, most notably Britain and Russia into the region due to the construction of the Baghdad Railway
Baghdad Railway
The Baghdad Railway , was built from 1903 to 1940 to connect Berlin with the Ottoman Empire city of Baghdad with a line through modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Iraq....
. They thought that bestowing the title could dissuade any foreign powers from interfering with Kuwait.
Relations with British
See Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement of 1899The long Ottoman indecisiveness in naming Mubarak kaymakam, as well as feelings of vulnerability helped pave the way for Mubarak to pursue British ties. On January 18, 1899 Mubarak signed a secret agreement with Major M.J. Meade, British political resident in Bushire, that guarded Kuwait against any outside foreign aggression. It also required Mubarak and his successors not to receive foreign agents or representatives or to cede or sell territory without the approval of the British government. Meade was eager to establish Kuwait as an official British protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
with the intention of extending British influence further into the Gulf and protecting its own trade as well as controlling the potential terminus for a purposed railway from Port Said
Port Said
Port Said is a city that lies in north east Egypt extending about 30 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, north of the Suez Canal, with an approximate population of 603,787...
and the prevention of a possible Ottoman or Russian takeover of Kuwait. However, neither Mubarak nor other British officials wanted to make Kuwait a protectorate. As a private letter from Sir Arthur Godley, Permanent Under-Secretary of India, wrote to Lord Curzon “…we don’t want Koweit, but we don’t want anyone else to have it.” Mubarak’s British protection made him free to secure and strengthen his own power without fear of any outside interference from the Ottomans, surrounding tribes, or the Russians.
1901 campaign
Mubarak, comforted by British protection felt free to pursue his own policies and mounted an invasion into NajdNajd
Najd or Nejd , literally Highland, is the central region of the Arabian Peninsula.-Boundaries :The Arabic word nejd literally means "upland" and was once applied to a variety of regions within the Arabian Peninsula...
(Central Arabia) with an army of Kuwaiti townspeople, Saudi loyalists, and Bedouins from every important eastern Arabian tribe. The objective was to claim the southern portion of the Rashidi
Rashidi
Al Rasheed, the House of Rashid, or the House of Rasheed were a historic dynasty of the Arabian Peninsula, and the most formidable enemies of the House of Saud in Nejd...
dominions in hopes that Mubarak’s dream of becoming the new, undisputed Arabian leader would be realized. The campaign was moderately successful until the Battle of Sarif on March 17, 1901 where most of Mubarak’s force was destroyed, including the deaths of his brother and two nephews. This marked not only the end of Mubarak’s dream but also put him on the verge of losing control of Kuwait. However, B.J. Slot challenges Anscombe’s claim that Mubarak had a dream of being the Arab leader of the Arabian Peninsula; rather, Slot contends, it was a maneuver to contain and balance the power in the region that resulted from an alliance between the Rashidi Amir in al-awadhi, Mubarak’s enemy Yusuf Al-Ibrahim, and the Baghdad Military Command.
Mubarak’s major defeat at Sarif severely threatened his rule. He requested on May 28, 1901 for British protectorate status (the British were still debating the meaning of the 1899 Agreement, and it was a secret anyway), but it was denied due to the international tensions surrounding Kuwait. The Ottomans tried to capitalize on Mubarak’s major defeat by deliberating a military solution to gain direct control of Kuwait. The Ottomans slowly realized that the growing British presence around Kuwait was a sign of Mubarak’s secret dealing with the British. The Ottomans attempted to firmly reestablish their control and influence by opening up customs and harbormaster posts. Through these posts the Ottomans tried to forcefully compel Mubarak to accept the new Ottoman presence, therefore showing real loyalty to the Ottomans. However, the British publicly reinforced Kuwait as they began solidifying the meaning of the 1899 Agreement. This showdown caused a crisis between the Ottomans and the British over Kuwait’s status as a state.
Status Quo Agreement
After the Perseus-Zuhaf encounter, where an Ottoman and British warship had a stand-off with each other, Mubarak, the British, and the Ottomans agreed to sign the Status Quo Agreement in September 1901. This agreement maintained that neither the Ottomans nor the British could place troops within Kuwait and that the Ottomans still had jurisdiction over Kuwait. The agreement averted the crisis, but Ottoman control was only nominal with Mubarak to freely pursue his own agendas in the years after.Mubarak after 1902 and increasing sovereignty
Mubarak carried on different activities that helped Kuwait gain more power and sovereignty apart from the Ottomans. Mubarak allowed exclusive rights for Britain to set up a post office in Kuwait in 1904 and in 1905-06 it was being considered that Kuwait should fly its own flag instead of the Ottoman standard. However, neither the post office nor the flag would happen until World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
. Mubarak as well, in October 1907 sold the rights for any terminus railroad sites to the British, compromising the German-Ottoman plan to extend the Berlin-Baghdad Railway
Baghdad Railway
The Baghdad Railway , was built from 1903 to 1940 to connect Berlin with the Ottoman Empire city of Baghdad with a line through modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Iraq....
to the port, which would have given them access to trade on the Indian subcontinent. In exchange Mubarak received £4000 per year and a promise that Britain would recognize Kuwait’s autonomy and the Sheikh’s power over it.
Mubarak also engaged in affairs concerning the neighboring areas around him, which caused consternation on both the Ottoman and the British sides. Mubarak supported and smuggled British guns to local Arabian leaders. In 1904-1906, while the Ottoman military occupied the important sub-region of al-Qasim in central Najd, Mubarak supported the Ottoman’s opponent Ibn Sa’ud giving him strong “strong moral and material” support. In 1905 Mubarak also served as a mediator between the Saudis and the Ottomans, while simultaneously shaping Saudi strategy during the negotiations. A sign that the Ottoman attitude toward Mubarak was changing occurred in 1911 when in a draft message to Mubarak he was addressed not as “Kaymakam of Kuwait” but rather “Ruler of Kuwait and Chief of its Tribes.” This change in attitude, which included other pressures and troubles for the Ottoman Empire including the British lobbying on Kuwait’s behalf, led to the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913
Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913
The Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913 was an agreement between the Ottoman Porte and the British Government defining the limits of Ottoman jurisdiction in the area of the Persian Gulf with respect to Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and the Shatt al-‘Arab...
, which recognized Kuwait as an autonomous kaza of the Ottoman Empire.
By the time World War I began Mubarak closely sided with the British against the Ottomans, and the 1913 Convention was rendered null. In support of the war effort Mubarak sent a force to Umm Qasr
Umm Qasr
Umm Qasr , is a port city in southern Iraq. It stands on the canalised Khawr az-Zubayr, part of the Khawr Abd Allah estuary which leads to the Persian Gulf. It is separated from the border of Kuwait by a small inlet...
, Safwan
Safwan
Safwan is a town in southeast Iraq on the border with Kuwait. It was the site of an Iraqi Air Force base.-Gulf War:Safwan is located in the south of Iraq at Iraqi Kuwaiti border , along the infamous Highway of Death from the Gulf War of 1991. The cease-fire negotiations between Gen...
, Bubiyan, and Basra to expel the Ottomans in November 1914. In exchange the British government recognized Kuwait as an “independent government under British protection.” There is no report on the exact size and nature of Mubarak’s attack, though Ottoman forces did retreat from those positions weeks later. Mubarak soon removed the Ottoman symbol that was on the Kuwaiti flag and replaced it with “Kuwait” written in Arabic script. Mubarak’s participation and previous exploits in obstructing the completion of the Baghdad railway helped the British safeguard the Persian Gulf from preventing Ottoman and German reinforcements.
Death
During the later years of Mubarak’s life he wrestled with bouts of illness. Mubarak finally died on November 28, 1915 due to an attack of malaria aggravated by his bad heart.Legacy
After Mubarak’s death his son Jaber II Al-SabahJaber II Al-Sabah
Sheikh Jaber II Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah, CSI, was the eighth Sheikh of Kuwait from the Al-Sabah line. He was the eldest son of Mubarak Al-Sabah and is the ancestor of the Al-Jaber branch of the Al-Sabah family...
ascended to the throne without any problems and when Jaber died his brother Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah
Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah
Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah, CSI was the ninth sheikh of Kuwait of the line of Al-Sabah. He was the second son of Mubarak Al-Sabah and is the ancestor of the Al-Salem branch of the Al-Sabah family. He ruled from February 5, 1917 to February 22, 1921. Prior to his ascension, he served as the...
took over. Since then to the present day all of Kuwait’s rulers have been direct descendants of Mubarak through his two sons. Mubarak’s skillful diplomacy and manipulation of the Ottomans and British strengthened his powerbase ensuring Kuwait’s eventual independence. Mubarak’s interference in tribal affairs and the example he made of himself destabilized the region in that it eventually broke the Ottoman hold over the Persian Gulf. Other rulers in the Gulf were inspired or influenced by Mubarak to take similar actions, many allying strongly with the British. Mubarak established not only the foundations of modern Kuwait but was a key person in the establishment of the modern Persian Gulf
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers...
.
Titles
- 1837-1896: SheikhSheikhNot to be confused with sikhSheikh — also spelled Sheik or Shaikh, or transliterated as Shaykh — is an honorific in the Arabic language that literally means "elder" and carries the meaning "leader and/or governor"...
Mubarak I bin Sabah Al-Sabah - 1896-1897: Sheikh Mubarak I bin Sabah Al-Sabah, Sheikh of KuwaitKuwaitThe State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
- 1897-1899: Kaimakkam Pasha Sheikh Mubarak I bin Sabah Al-Sabah, Sheikh of Kuwait
- 1899-1911: Sheikh Mubarak I bin Sabah Al-Sabah, Sheikh of Kuwait and dependencies
- 1911-2 June 1914: Sheikh SirSirSir is an honorific used as a title , or as a courtesy title to address a man without using his given or family name in many English speaking cultures...
Mubarak I bin Sabah Al-Sabah, Sheikh of Kuwait and dependencies, KCIEKCIEKCIE may refer to:* Knight Commander, one of the ranks of the Order of the Indian Empire* KCIE , a radio station licensed to Dulce, New Mexico, United States... - 2 June-11 August 1914: Sheikh Sir Mubarak I bin Sabah Al-Sabah, Sheikh of Kuwait and dependencies, KCSIOrder of the Star of IndiaThe Most Exalted Order of the Star of India is an order of chivalry founded by Queen Victoria in 1861. The Order includes members of three classes:# Knight Grand Commander # Knight Commander # Companion...
, KCIE - 11 August 1914-1915: His ExcellencyExcellencyExcellency is an honorific style given to certain members of an organization or state.Usually, people styled "Excellency" are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, certain ecclesiastics, royalty, aristocracy, and military, and others holding equivalent rank .It is...
Sheikh Sir Mubarak I bin Sabah Al-Sabah, Sheikh of Kuwait and dependencies, KCSI, KCIE
Honours
- Permanent saluteSaluteA salute is a gesture or other action used to display respect. Salutes are primarily associated with armed forces, but other organizations and civil people also use salutes.-Military salutes:...
of 12 guns-1909 - Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE)-1911
- Order of Majid, 1st Class of the Ottoman EmpireOttoman EmpireThe Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
-1912 - Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI)-1914
- Style of Excellency-1914
Further reading
- Ahmad, Feroz. "A Note on the International Status of Kuwait before November 1914." International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Cambridge University Press), February 1992: 181-185.
- Bidwell, Robin. The Affairs of Arabia. London: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1971.
- Clements, Frank A. Kuwait: World Bibliographical Series. Oxford: Clio Press Ltd., 1985.
- Dickson, Harold Richard Patrick. Kuwait and her Neighbours. Edited for publication by Clifford Witting. London: Allen & Unwin, 1956.
- Freeth, Zahra. A New Look at Kuwait. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1972.
- Jarman, Robert L. Sabah al-Salim al-Sabah: Amir of Kuwait, 1965-77 . London: London Centre of Arab Studies Ltd, 2002.
- Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley. Oil in the Middle East. 3rd Edition. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
- Slot, B.J. The Origins of Kuwait. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991.
- Smith, Simon C. "The Making of a Neo-Colony? Anglo-Kuwaiti Relations in the Era of Decolonization." Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Frank Cass & Company Ltd.), January 2001: 159-172.
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See also
- List of emirs of Kuwait
- Al-SabahAl-SabahThe House of Al Sabah is the ruling family of Kuwait. They are a clan from the Anizah tribe which migrated to Kuwait in the early 18th century from Najd . They are also from the Utub tribe. After reaching Kuwait, they entered in an alliance with the other families of the Utub such as Al-Khalifa...