Muhammad Amin Bughra
Encyclopedia
Muhammad Amin Bughra also Muḥammad Amīn Bughra (1901–1965) , Муххамад Эмин Бугро, (sometimes known by his Turkish name Mehmet Emin Bugra) was a Turkic Muslim leader, who planned to set up an independent state, the First East Turkestan Republic
.
Muhammad Amin Bughra's daughter Benazir Bughra is married to Mohammad Ahmet Bekri, was born in 1931 in Hotan, and is the mother of Chairman Nur Bekri
of Xinjiang
.
. A number of factors contributed to the outbreak. In an effort to appease the Turkic
Muslims, Sheng Shicai
had appointed a number of their non-secessionist leaders, including Khoja Niyaz Hajji
and Yulbars Khan
, another leader of the Kumul uprising (February 20, 1931- November 30, 1931), to positions of influence in the provincial government, both in Di Hua
(modern Ürümqi) and Kashgar
.
At the same time, educational reforms, which attacked basic Islamic principles, and the atheistic propaganda program, which was being extended into the south, were further alienating the local population from Sheng's administration. In Kashgar Mahmud Sijang, a wealthy Muslim, former leader of the Turpan uprising (1932), and one of Sheng's appointees, became the focal point for opposition to the government.
Meanwhile, in Afghanistan
under Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan
, Muhammad Amin Bughra, the exiled leader of the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan
(TIRET, known as the first East Turkestan Republic), had approached the Japanese
ambassador in 1935 with "a detailed plan proposing the establishment of an 'Eastern Turkestan Republic' under Japanese sponsorship, with munitions and finance to be supplied by Tokyo
.... he suggested as the future leader of this proposed Central Asian 'Manchukuo
' none other than Mahmud Sijang (Mahmut Muhiti - commander of the 6th Uyghur
Division
, stationed in Kashgar as part of the Sinkiang
provincial armed forces, since July 20, 1934), amongst the invitation at such political entity as Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere how active member." However, this plan was aborted when Mahmud, fearful for his life, fled from Kashgar to India
on April 2, 1937, after failed attempt of Sheng Shicai
to disarm his troops by offering to " modernize " weapons of 6th Uyghur Division, prior which all old weapons of Division was to be given over to Urumchi representatives.
Mahmud's flight sparked an uprising amongst his troops against provincial authorities. Those who were pro-Soviet in any way were executed, and yet another independent Muslim
administration was set up under leadership of the close associate of Mahmut Muhiti General Abduniyaz (killed in action in Yarkand on August 15, 1937), who adopted a command of troops, which enlisted about 4,000 soldiers and officers, consisted of 4 regiments, two of them being stationed in Kashgar, one in Yangihissar
, one in Yarkand, also one brigade was stationed in Ustin Atush
and one cavalry guard escadron in Kashgar. Sheng Shicai
's provincial troops were defeated and routed by rebels in the fierce battle near city of Karashahr
in July,1937, but eventually the uprising was quelled by Soviet troops (by the so-called Kyrgyz Brigade, about 5,000 troops, consisted of two tactical groups- " Oshskaya " and " Narinskaya ", each included 2 mountain regiments, one of Red Army
and one of NKVD
, reinforced by armoured vehicles, tank battalion (21 BT-7
) and aviation; there were unconfirmed reports of the use of chemical weapons by these intervention forces against rebels), invited by Sheng Shicai to intervene in the August, 1937.
In 1940, Muhammad Amin Bughra published the book Sharkiy Turkestan Tarihi (East Turkestan History) while in exile in Kashmir
, which described the history of the region from ancient times to the present day, and contained an analysis of the reasons for the loss of its independence
in the middle of the eighteenth century.
In 1940 Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang who were sent by Chiang Kai-shek
, visited Afghanistan and contacted Bughra, they asked him to come to Chongqing
, the capital of the Kuomintang
regime. Bughra was arrested by the British in 1942 for spying, and the Kuomintang arranged for Bughra's release. He and Isa Yusuf worked as editors of Kuomintang Muslim publications. Under the Zhang Zhizhong
regime in Xinjiang, he was provincial commissioner.
In December, 1948, Muhammad Amin Bughra was appointed by Chiang Kai Shek as vice-chairman of the Sinkiang
Government, led by Burhan Shahidi
. He declared an alliance with the Chinese nationalists (Kuomintang
) in order to gain freedom for Eastern Turkestan, under formal protection of the "Republic of China
", and necessity of quelling all communist forces in Sinkiang
.
to Sinkiang
in September, 1949, Muhammad Amin Bughra fled to India
, then to Turkey
, where he joined another exiled Uyghur leader, Isa Yusuf Alptekin
, former General Secretary
of the National Assembly
of TIRET or Republic of Uyghurstan (Uyghurstan, Jumhuriyeti - under such names were minted the first coins issued by the Republic). The latter Republic had existed a short time, from November 12, 1933, to February 6, 1934, and fell apart under attacks by the Hui
armies of Ma Chung-ying, who was formally allied with the Kuomintang
government in Nanking
.
Muhammad Amin Bughra died in exile in Turkey in 1965.
First East Turkestan Republic
The First Eastern Turkestan Republic , or Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan , or, Republic of Uyghurstan, was a short-lived breakaway would-be Islamic republic founded in 1933...
.
Muhammad Amin Bughra's daughter Benazir Bughra is married to Mohammad Ahmet Bekri, was born in 1931 in Hotan, and is the mother of Chairman Nur Bekri
Nur Bekri
Nur Bekri is the current Chairman of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China. He is of Uyghur ethnicity and was born and raised in his native Xinjiang. He has spent his entire life in the Region, aside from a short stint as the Deputy Mayor of Feicheng, Shandong...
of Xinjiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
.
Eastern Turkestan Republic
In the spring of 1937, rebellion again broke out in southern SinkiangXinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
. A number of factors contributed to the outbreak. In an effort to appease the Turkic
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are peoples residing in northern, central and western Asia, southern Siberia and northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds...
Muslims, Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
had appointed a number of their non-secessionist leaders, including Khoja Niyaz Hajji
Hoja-Niyaz
Hoja Niyaz Haji also Khoja or Xoja Niyaz Haji was a Uyghur independence movement leader who led several rebellions in Xinjiang against the Kumul Khanate, the Chinese governor Jin Shuren, and later the Hui warlord Ma Chung-ying...
and Yulbars Khan
Yulbars Khan
Yulbars Khan , courtesy name Jingfu , was a Uighur born in Yangi Hissar in 1888. He entered the service in the Kumul Khanate of Muhammad Khan of Kumul and later his son Maksud Shah. He served as an advisor at the court, until when Maksud died in March 1930, governor Jin Shuren abolished the khanate...
, another leader of the Kumul uprising (February 20, 1931- November 30, 1931), to positions of influence in the provincial government, both in Di Hua
Ürümqi
Ürümqi , formerly Tihwa , is the capital of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, in the northwest of the country....
(modern Ürümqi) and Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
.
At the same time, educational reforms, which attacked basic Islamic principles, and the atheistic propaganda program, which was being extended into the south, were further alienating the local population from Sheng's administration. In Kashgar Mahmud Sijang, a wealthy Muslim, former leader of the Turpan uprising (1932), and one of Sheng's appointees, became the focal point for opposition to the government.
Meanwhile, in Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
under Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan
Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan
Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan was a political figure in Afghanistan.He was the uncle of Mohammad Zahir Shah and the elder brother of Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan and Sardar Shah Wali Khan. Hashim put into effect the policies already orchestrated by his brothers...
, Muhammad Amin Bughra, the exiled leader of the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan
First East Turkestan Republic
The First Eastern Turkestan Republic , or Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan , or, Republic of Uyghurstan, was a short-lived breakaway would-be Islamic republic founded in 1933...
(TIRET, known as the first East Turkestan Republic), had approached the Japanese
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
ambassador in 1935 with "a detailed plan proposing the establishment of an 'Eastern Turkestan Republic' under Japanese sponsorship, with munitions and finance to be supplied by Tokyo
Tokyo
, ; officially , is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. Tokyo is the capital of Japan, the center of the Greater Tokyo Area, and the largest metropolitan area of Japan. It is the seat of the Japanese government and the Imperial Palace, and the home of the Japanese Imperial Family...
.... he suggested as the future leader of this proposed Central Asian 'Manchukuo
Manchukuo
Manchukuo or Manshū-koku was a puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia, governed under a form of constitutional monarchy. The region was the historical homeland of the Manchus, who founded the Qing Empire in China...
' none other than Mahmud Sijang (Mahmut Muhiti - commander of the 6th Uyghur
East Turkestan
East Turkestan is a controversial political term with multiple meanings depending on context and usage...
Division
Division (military)
A division is a large military unit or formation usually consisting of between 10,000 and 20,000 soldiers. In most armies, a division is composed of several regiments or brigades, and in turn several divisions typically make up a corps...
, stationed in Kashgar as part of the Sinkiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
provincial armed forces, since July 20, 1934), amongst the invitation at such political entity as Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere how active member." However, this plan was aborted when Mahmud, fearful for his life, fled from Kashgar to India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
on April 2, 1937, after failed attempt of Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
to disarm his troops by offering to " modernize " weapons of 6th Uyghur Division, prior which all old weapons of Division was to be given over to Urumchi representatives.
Mahmud's flight sparked an uprising amongst his troops against provincial authorities. Those who were pro-Soviet in any way were executed, and yet another independent Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
administration was set up under leadership of the close associate of Mahmut Muhiti General Abduniyaz (killed in action in Yarkand on August 15, 1937), who adopted a command of troops, which enlisted about 4,000 soldiers and officers, consisted of 4 regiments, two of them being stationed in Kashgar, one in Yangihissar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
, one in Yarkand, also one brigade was stationed in Ustin Atush
Artux
Artux, Atush or Atushi is a county-level city in Xinjiang. The area is 15,509 km² and the total population is 200,000 . Artux is the seat of Kizilsu Kirghiz Autonomous Prefecture....
and one cavalry guard escadron in Kashgar. Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
's provincial troops were defeated and routed by rebels in the fierce battle near city of Karashahr
Karasahr
Yanqi , or Karasahr , is an ancient town on the Silk Road and capital of Yanqi Hui Autonomous County in the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture of Xinjiang, in northwestern China...
in July,1937, but eventually the uprising was quelled by Soviet troops (by the so-called Kyrgyz Brigade, about 5,000 troops, consisted of two tactical groups- " Oshskaya " and " Narinskaya ", each included 2 mountain regiments, one of Red Army
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union. By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history.The "Red Army" name refers to...
and one of NKVD
NKVD
The People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs was the public and secret police organization of the Soviet Union that directly executed the rule of power of the Soviets, including political repression, during the era of Joseph Stalin....
, reinforced by armoured vehicles, tank battalion (21 BT-7
BT-7
The BT-7 was the last of the BT tank series of Soviet cavalry tanks that were produced in large numbers between 1935 and 1940. They were lightly armoured, but reasonably well-armed for their time, and had much better mobility than other contemporary tank designs...
) and aviation; there were unconfirmed reports of the use of chemical weapons by these intervention forces against rebels), invited by Sheng Shicai to intervene in the August, 1937.
In 1940, Muhammad Amin Bughra published the book Sharkiy Turkestan Tarihi (East Turkestan History) while in exile in Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range...
, which described the history of the region from ancient times to the present day, and contained an analysis of the reasons for the loss of its independence
Independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
in the middle of the eighteenth century.
In 1940 Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang who were sent by Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....
, visited Afghanistan and contacted Bughra, they asked him to come to Chongqing
Chongqing
Chongqing is a major city in Southwest China and one of the five national central cities of China. Administratively, it is one of the PRC's four direct-controlled municipalities , and the only such municipality in inland China.The municipality was created on 14 March 1997, succeeding the...
, the capital of the Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
regime. Bughra was arrested by the British in 1942 for spying, and the Kuomintang arranged for Bughra's release. He and Isa Yusuf worked as editors of Kuomintang Muslim publications. Under the Zhang Zhizhong
Zhang Zhizhong
Zhang Zhizhong was a general in the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China. He was born in Chaohu, Anhui, and attended the Baoding Military Academy from which he graduated in 1916...
regime in Xinjiang, he was provincial commissioner.
In December, 1948, Muhammad Amin Bughra was appointed by Chiang Kai Shek as vice-chairman of the Sinkiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
Government, led by Burhan Shahidi
Burhan Shahidi
Burhan Shahidi was a political leader in Xinjiang, China during the 20th century.-Early life:Burhan Shahidi was born in 1894 in the Russian province of Kazan to a family whose ancestors had fled from Aksu, an oasis town in southern Xinjiang, after a failed peasant uprising during the Qing Dynasty...
. He declared an alliance with the Chinese nationalists (Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
) in order to gain freedom for Eastern Turkestan, under formal protection of the "Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
", and necessity of quelling all communist forces in Sinkiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
.
Exile
Upon the approach of the Chinese People's Liberation ArmyPeople's Liberation Army
The People's Liberation Army is the unified military organization of all land, sea, strategic missile and air forces of the People's Republic of China. The PLA was established on August 1, 1927 — celebrated annually as "PLA Day" — as the military arm of the Communist Party of China...
to Sinkiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
in September, 1949, Muhammad Amin Bughra fled to India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, then to Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, where he joined another exiled Uyghur leader, Isa Yusuf Alptekin
Isa Alptekin
Isa Yusuf Alptekin or ʿĪsa Yūsuf Alptekin ; 1901 – 17 December 1995) was a Uyghur political leader, exiled from China in 1949.He was born at 1901 in Yengisar County, Kashgar, Qing Dynasty...
, former General Secretary
General Secretary
The office of general secretary is staffed by the chief officer of:*The General Secretariat for Macedonia and Thrace, a government agency for the Greek regions of Macedonia and Thrace...
of the National Assembly
National Assembly
National Assembly is either a legislature, or the lower house of a bicameral legislature in some countries. The best known National Assembly, and the first legislature to be known by this title, was that established during the French Revolution in 1789, known as the Assemblée nationale...
of TIRET or Republic of Uyghurstan (Uyghurstan, Jumhuriyeti - under such names were minted the first coins issued by the Republic). The latter Republic had existed a short time, from November 12, 1933, to February 6, 1934, and fell apart under attacks by the Hui
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
armies of Ma Chung-ying, who was formally allied with the Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
government in Nanking
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
.
Muhammad Amin Bughra died in exile in Turkey in 1965.