Nepal Bhasa
Encyclopedia
Nepal Bhasa is one of the major languages of Nepal
, and is also spoken in India
, particularly in Sikkim
where it is one of the 11 official languages. Nepal Bhasa is the mother tongue of about 3% of the people in Nepal (see the list of languages of Nepal
). It is spoken mainly by the Newar
s, who chiefly inhabit the towns of the Kathmandu Valley
. Although Nepal Bhasa is classified as a Sino-Tibetan language, it has been greatly influenced by the Indo-Aryan languages.
With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Nepal Bhasa-speaking people have emerged in countries like the United States, the UK, Australia and Japan.
Little is known about the origins of Nepal Bhasa except that the language has evolved with continued influences from Nepali, Tibetan, Kirati, Maithali, Pali, Sanskrit, Khas, Hindi and other languages of the region. The language largely replaced Sanskrit as the official language of medieval Nepal as the language used in the shilalekh or stone scripture.
Nepal Bhasa can be classified into old era and new era language. Although there is no specific demarcation between the two, mid-Rana regime of Nepal i.e. around 966 to 1061 N.S. is taken as the period of demarcation between the two.
Modern Nepal Bhasa is the most Indianized of the Tibeto-Burman languages. It has had many centuries of contact with neighboring Indic languages.
which is a general discussion of business transactions. This document dates from the Licchavi period. Hence, it can be inferred that although the official language of the period was Sanskrit, Nepal Bhasa was already in use.
which is a description of Shiva
, and the use of a tiger skin as a seat for Shiva.
The language replaced Sanskrit
as the administrative language during this period.
During the autocratic Panchayat rule of King Mahendra, which followed the coup d'état
that deposed the democratically elected bodies of Nepal, a new policy of "Ek Bhasa, Ek Rashtra" (One language, one nation) was enforced. This policy made Nepali language the only state language, and the other languages were in shadow as "ethnic" or "local" languages. The implementation of this policy made Nepali the state language. The continued primacy of the language over 30 years made Khas or Nepali language the lingua franca
as well. Oher languages, including Nepal Bhasa, were cast aside, as the population could not use it for official, educational or legal purposes.
, Jagat Sundar Malla, Yogbir Singh Kansakar, Shukraraj Shastri, Dharmaditya Dharmacharya started writing, translating, educating, and restructuring the language.
The publication of a modern grammar, reader, and children's story books by Shukraraj Shastri, translation of the ancient epic Ramayan, writing about the morals and ethics by Siddhidas Mahaju, "education in mother tongue" movement by Jagat Sundar Malla and other literary activities in the era marked the renaissance. Also, research on the language began in this period. It was proven that this language was a Sino-Tibetan language and not Indo-Aryan language (as was believed) in this era. Also, the renaissance marked the revival of the word "Nepal Bhasa" to name the language rather than the Khas imposed term "Newari".
Some of the lines of Siddhidas Mahaju
(N.S.
987 – N.S. 1050) read as follows
(sajjana manuṣyā saṃgatanaṃ mūrkha nāpaṃ bhinā vai / palēlā lapatē la vaṃsā mvati thēṃ la sanā vai)
which state that even a moron can improve with the company of good people just like even a drop of water appears like a pearl when it descends upon the leaves of a lotus plant.
etc..
During the Panchayat era, under the slogan of "One nation, One language", Nepal Bhasa and other languages of Nepal were prevented from being broadcast on Radio Nepal or other government media. As the Government did not allow private broadcasting in Nepal, this prevented the language from mass media. Also, the term Newari was used to address the language instead of Nepal Bhasa, which met fierce criticism and resistance. This marked the beginning of Nepal Bhasa movement
. Instead of using mass media, people started producing audio cassettes. Also, the first Nepal Bhasa movie Silu marked the beginning of movies in Nepal Bhasa. The Nepal Bhasa movement aimed to end the "One nation, one language" policy. Some lines from the famous poet Durga Lal Shrestha
of this era are as follows-
Even after the restoration of democracy and the Loktantra revolution, the state owned media address the language as Newari. Also, after the Supreme court banned the use of Nepal Bhasa and any other language of Nepal in any administrative activities, Nepal Bhasa movement merged with other languages movements to fight for the right of language.
tone.
now-a-days,in this district tamang cast lives than other cast's people.
in new Nepal's constitution assembly the largest party of Nepal proposed in tamsaling rajya for this district in their federation module..
(Bhaktapur is also known as Bhadgaon.)
s, diphthong
s, anusvara
and visarga
, stop
s and nasal
s (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the liquids and fricatives, written in IAST
as follows (see the tables below for details):
The earliest form of written grammar were developed by Shukraj Shastri and Nisthananda Bajracharya. Shastri studied Sanskrit, English and Hindi grammar before creating his masterpiece called Nepal Bhasa Wyakarana, which is based largely on that of Sanskrit but with great study of Nepal Bhasa as well.
Nepal Bhasa has been written in a variety of abugida
scripts. The scripts which have been used to write this language are:
Over the centuries, Nepal Bhasa has been written in many scripts, all of which are descended from the Brahmi script
. All the scripts proceed from left to right, and include two separate sets of characters – a vowel set and a consonant set. Devanagari is the most widely-used script at the present, as it is the official script of Nepal as well as is used widely in neighbouring India. Ranjana script
was the most widely-used script for Nepal Bhasa in ancient times, and is experiencing a sort of a revival due to recent cultural awareness. The Prachalit script, being similar to Devanagari, is also in use. The Brahmi and Golmol scripts are rarely used in present.
In overall writing system of Nepal Bhasa, there are four form of alphabets:
Even though ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ are present in Nepal Bhasa, they are rarely used. Instead, some of the experts are suggesting to include अय्(aya)and आय्(aaya) in the list of vowels.
The use of ङ and ञ was very common in the old form of language. However, in the new form, specially in written, the use of these characters has diminished. The use of ण, त, थ, द, ध, न, श, ष, क्ष, त्र, ज्ञ (in darker color above) are limited by the new Grammar books to the loan words only.
The same numericals in Devnagari are:
Main article: Nepal Bhasa literature
Nepal Bhasa literature has a long history. It has the fourth-oldest literature of the Sino-Tibetan languages (the first, second and third being Chinese, Tibetan and Burmese respectively).
s are traditionally performed in open Dabu (stage). Most of the traditional dramas are related to deities and demons. Masked characters are central to such dramas. Music forms an important part of drama. Most of them are narrated with the help of songs sang at intervals. The drama as such resembles dance in many cases. The theme of most of the drama is to create a social wellbeing with morals illustrating the rise, turbulence and fall of evil. There are fixed dates in the Nepal Sambat
(Nepal Era) calendar for performance of specific drama. Most of the dramas are carried out by specific Guthi
s.
writing constituted a pompous part of medieval Malla aristrocracy. Many of the kings were well renowned poets. Siddhidas Mahaju
and Chittadhar Hridaya
are two great poets in the language.
telling is very old in Nepal Bhasa. There are a variety of mythical and social stories that have aided in establishing the norm of Kathmandu valley. Stories ranging from the origin of Kathmandu valley to the temples of the valley and the important monuments have been passed down verbally in Nepal Bhasa and very few are present in written form. However, with an increase in literacy rate and an awareness amongst the people, those stories have been penned down. Stories on other topics have also taken root.
Nepal Bhasa is the mother tongue of Newars. Newars form a very diverse community with people from the Mongolian, Aryan and—according to some—even Dravidian races. Newars follow Hinduism and Buddhism, and are subdivided into 64 castes. The language therefore plays a central unifying role in the existence and perpetuation of Newar community. The poet Siddhidas Mahaju concluded that the Newar community and its rich culture can only survive if Nepal Bhasa survives (भाषा म्वासा जाति म्वाइ).
Relative to many other languages of Nepal, Nepal Bhasa enjoyed promotions in various areas since Kathmandu become the capital of the country, as the Newar community rose in ranks throughout the government, royal courts and businesses.
Nepal Bhasa faced a decline during the Shah era when this language was replaced by Khas Kura (later renamed Nepali) as the national language and after the introduction of the "One nation, one language" policy of King Mahendra. The then Royal Nepalese Government spent a lot for Sanskrit education and a Sanskrit University was approved during those times—although Sanskrit is virtually not spoken by anyone in Nepal—because Khas Kura's roots lie in Sanskrit. There were very few resources available then for even primary-level education in Nepal Bhasa. There were no programs broadcast in Nepal Bhasa in the state radio, Radio Nepal. Even after programs in Nepal Bhasa began to be broadcast, the language was referred to as "Newari", a term considered derogatory by Newars. Even today, there are no programs in Nepal Bhasa in the state television, Nepal Television, although it broadcasts a Bollywood Hindi movie every Saturday (although it is used as lingua franca in Terai, Hindi is mother tongue of less than 1% population in Nepal) and often Pakistani serials (in Urdu) as well. The Supreme Court of Nepal has also banned any use of Nepal Bhasa even for trivial matters in official purposes of any part of Nepal. These factors have led to a resentment among Newar community and a feeling of "second class" citizen in one's own state.
This fact has been used for political advantages by many parties of Nepal. Many slogans are translated into Nepal Bhasa, although very few important documents of political parties are ever translated into Nepal Bhasa.
This language is a SOV
(subject–object–verb) language. For instance, "My name is Bilat (Birat)" is "Jigu Na'aa Bilat Khaa'a " which word by word translation becomes, "My(Jigu) Name(Na'aa) Bilat is(Khaa'a)".
Interrogative sentence-
Wh-question:
In case of Newari language, Wh-questions are rather "G-questions" with "when/which" being replaced by "Gublay/Gugu" respectively. There is an additional "Guli" which is used for "How much/How many". A S-word "Soo" is used for "who". "Chhoo/Schoo (with a silent 's')" is used for "What", and "Gathey" is used for "How".
is used derogatorily. For example, kya'ah-chaa means nephew where "chaa" is being added to kya'ah(son). When added to name like Birat
for "Birat-chaa", it is being used derogatorily. The suffix "ju" is added to show respect. For example, "Baa-ju" means "father-in-law"
where "ju" is added to "Baa(father)". Unlike "chaa", "ju" is not added to a first/last name directly. Instead, honorific terms like
"Bhaaju" is added for males and "Mayju" for females. Example, "Birat bhaaju" for a male name (Birat) and "Suja Mayju" for a female name (Suja).
ii. Prefix – "Tap'ah" is added to denote "remote" or "distant" relative ('distance' in relationship irrespective of spatial extent). A distant (younger) brother (kija) becomes "tap'ah-kija". "Tuh" is added to denote "higher". Father (baa)'s senior brother is referred to as "Tuh-baa".
Special
Nepal
Nepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked sovereign state located in South Asia. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India...
, and is also spoken in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, particularly in Sikkim
Sikkim
Sikkim is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayan mountains...
where it is one of the 11 official languages. Nepal Bhasa is the mother tongue of about 3% of the people in Nepal (see the list of languages of Nepal
Languages of Nepal
There are some 120 native languages of Nepal, belonging to the Indo-Aryan, Sino-Tibetan, Austro-Asiatic and Dravidian language families.The official language of Nepal is Nepali , formerly called Khaskura then Gorkhali. The 2001 census counted 11 million native speakers in Nepal and it is spoken as...
). It is spoken mainly by the Newar
Newar
The Newa , Newār or Newāl) are the indigenous people and the creators of the historical civilization of Nepal's Kathmandu Valley. The valley and surrounding territory have been known from ancient times as Nepal Mandala, its limits ever changing through history.Newas have lived in the Kathmandu...
s, who chiefly inhabit the towns of the Kathmandu Valley
Kathmandu Valley
The Kathmandu Valley , located in Nepal, lies at the crossroads of ancient civilizations of Asia, and has at least 130 important monuments, including several places of pilgrimage for the Hindus and the Buddhists. There are seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites within this valley.-Etymology:The city of...
. Although Nepal Bhasa is classified as a Sino-Tibetan language, it has been greatly influenced by the Indo-Aryan languages.
Geographic distribution
The language is spoken by roughly around a million people in Nepal according to 2001 census; a few thousand people outside Nepal also speak the language. In terms of speakers, it ranks similar to Jumli, another language spoken mainly in western Nepal.- In Nepal: Kathmandu valley i.e. (Kathmandu Metropolitan City, Lalitpur Sub Metropolitan City, Bhaktapur Municipality, Kirtipur Municipality, Thimi Municipality), Dolakha, Banepa, DhulikhelDhulikhelDhulikhel is the administrative centre of Kavrepalanchok District, Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 9812 people in 1624 households. Dhulikhel lies along the B.P. Highway and Arniko Highway. Arniko Highway connects Kathmandu, Nepal's capital city with Tibet's...
, Bhimphedi (Makwanpur), Panauti, Palpa, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Bhojpur, Biratnagar, Baglung, Bandipur, Birgunj, Hetaunda and other chief cities. - In India: SikkimSikkimSikkim is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayan mountains...
, West BengalWest BengalWest Bengal is a state in the eastern region of India and is the nation's fourth-most populous. It is also the seventh-most populous sub-national entity in the world, with over 91 million inhabitants. A major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to India's GDP... - In Tibet: Khasa
With an increase in emigration, various bodies and societies of Nepal Bhasa-speaking people have emerged in countries like the United States, the UK, Australia and Japan.
History and development
Nepal Bhasa can be classified into old era and new era language. Although there is no specific demarcation between the two, mid-Rana regime of Nepal i.e. around 966 to 1061 N.S. is taken as the period of demarcation between the two.
Modern Nepal Bhasa is the most Indianized of the Tibeto-Burman languages. It has had many centuries of contact with neighboring Indic languages.
Ancient era
The earliest known (dated) document in Nepal Bhasa is called "The Palmleaf from Uku Bahal" which dates back to 1114 AD (235 NS).
chīna ḍhākō tr̥saṃghaṣa paribhōga, chu pulēṃga kītya bipāra vastra bivu mikhā tivu maduguna chu sāta dugunava lhai.
which is a general discussion of business transactions. This document dates from the Licchavi period. Hence, it can be inferred that although the official language of the period was Sanskrit, Nepal Bhasa was already in use.
Medieval era
The language continued growing in the Medieval period, and enjoyed royal patronage. Noted royal writers include Mahindra Malla, Siddhinarsingh Malla, Jagatprakash Malla etc. An example of the language used in that period is provided by lines of Mooldevshashidev written by Jagatprakash Malla
- धु छेगुकि पाछाव वाहान
- तिलहित बिया हिङ लाहाति थाय थायस
which is a description of Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
, and the use of a tiger skin as a seat for Shiva.
The language replaced Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
as the administrative language during this period.
Dark ages
Nepal Bhasa faced a setback after the unification of Nepal in the 18th century, as the language of the hill people became the court language. Nepal Bhasa was replaced as the language of administration by Nepali after the advent of the Shah dynasty. Furthermore, the literature and scripts of the language were put into the shadow during the 104 years of aristocratic "Rana rule" (1846–1950 AD). During this time, legal documents written in Nepal Bhasa were declared unenforceable and any evidence in Nepal Bhasa was declared null and void. There was no state support thereafter. It was forbidden to create literature in Nepal Bhasa, and writers were sent to jail.During the autocratic Panchayat rule of King Mahendra, which followed the coup d'état
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
that deposed the democratically elected bodies of Nepal, a new policy of "Ek Bhasa, Ek Rashtra" (One language, one nation) was enforced. This policy made Nepali language the only state language, and the other languages were in shadow as "ethnic" or "local" languages. The implementation of this policy made Nepali the state language. The continued primacy of the language over 30 years made Khas or Nepali language the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
as well. Oher languages, including Nepal Bhasa, were cast aside, as the population could not use it for official, educational or legal purposes.
Renaissance era
The period between 1908 to 1940 is considered as the renaissance era of Nepal Bhasa. During this period, people like Pandit Nisthananda Bajracharya, Siddhidas MahajuSiddhidas Mahaju
Siddhidas Mahaju is one of the greatest writers in Nepal Bhasa literature. He is considered as the greatest poet in the language. He translated Ramayana to Nepal Bhasa. He is one of the four main people involved in Nepal Bhasa renaissance.-Influences:He influenced every single poet and writer...
, Jagat Sundar Malla, Yogbir Singh Kansakar, Shukraraj Shastri, Dharmaditya Dharmacharya started writing, translating, educating, and restructuring the language.
The publication of a modern grammar, reader, and children's story books by Shukraraj Shastri, translation of the ancient epic Ramayan, writing about the morals and ethics by Siddhidas Mahaju, "education in mother tongue" movement by Jagat Sundar Malla and other literary activities in the era marked the renaissance. Also, research on the language began in this period. It was proven that this language was a Sino-Tibetan language and not Indo-Aryan language (as was believed) in this era. Also, the renaissance marked the revival of the word "Nepal Bhasa" to name the language rather than the Khas imposed term "Newari".
Some of the lines of Siddhidas Mahaju
Siddhidas Mahaju
Siddhidas Mahaju is one of the greatest writers in Nepal Bhasa literature. He is considered as the greatest poet in the language. He translated Ramayana to Nepal Bhasa. He is one of the four main people involved in Nepal Bhasa renaissance.-Influences:He influenced every single poet and writer...
(N.S.
Nepal Sambat
Nepal Sambat is the national lunar calendar of Nepal. It was used throughout Medieval Nepal, and into early modern Nepal, until Chandra Sumsher decided to remove it in BS 1960. It was started in 880 AD during the reign of King Raghav Dev to commemorate the payment of all the debts of Nepalese...
987 – N.S. 1050) read as follows
- सज्जन मनुष्या संगतनं मूर्ख नापं भिना वै
- पलेला लपते ल वंसा म्वति थें ल सना वै
(sajjana manuṣyā saṃgatanaṃ mūrkha nāpaṃ bhinā vai / palēlā lapatē la vaṃsā mvati thēṃ la sanā vai)
which state that even a moron can improve with the company of good people just like even a drop of water appears like a pearl when it descends upon the leaves of a lotus plant.
Modern Nepal Bhasa
A lot of writers and thinkers have contributed to the modern form of Nepal Bhasa. These include Chittadhar "Hridaya", Durga Lal ShresthaDurga Lal Shrestha
Durga Lal Shrestha is a famous poet of Nepal Bhasa and Nepali. Some people brand him as Progressive literateur or People's literateur...
etc..
During the Panchayat era, under the slogan of "One nation, One language", Nepal Bhasa and other languages of Nepal were prevented from being broadcast on Radio Nepal or other government media. As the Government did not allow private broadcasting in Nepal, this prevented the language from mass media. Also, the term Newari was used to address the language instead of Nepal Bhasa, which met fierce criticism and resistance. This marked the beginning of Nepal Bhasa movement
Nepal Bhasa movement
Nepal Bhasa movement is a linguistic movement of Nepal. It aims at the recognition and usage of Nepal Bhasa along with other Nepalese languages for official purposes.-History:...
. Instead of using mass media, people started producing audio cassettes. Also, the first Nepal Bhasa movie Silu marked the beginning of movies in Nepal Bhasa. The Nepal Bhasa movement aimed to end the "One nation, one language" policy. Some lines from the famous poet Durga Lal Shrestha
Durga Lal Shrestha
Durga Lal Shrestha is a famous poet of Nepal Bhasa and Nepali. Some people brand him as Progressive literateur or People's literateur...
of this era are as follows-
The restoration of democracy marked the privatization of media. Various concerned people and organizations are working on the development of Nepal Bhasa by themselves. Nepal Bhasa has several newspapers, a primary level curriculum, several schools, several F.M. stations (selected time for Nepal Bhasa programs), regular TV programs and News (in Image TV Channel), Nepal Bhasa Music Award (a part of Image Award), several websites (including Nepal Bhasa wikipedia) etc.
We are crying because we are wounded, We are shouting because of the pain. All in all, we are demonstrating signs that we are not dead yet."
Even after the restoration of democracy and the Loktantra revolution, the state owned media address the language as Newari. Also, after the Supreme court banned the use of Nepal Bhasa and any other language of Nepal in any administrative activities, Nepal Bhasa movement merged with other languages movements to fight for the right of language.
Dolkhali (Dolakha)
This is the most preserved form of language and resembles the old Nepal Bhasa.Sindhupalchowk Pahri (Pahri, Pahari)
This dialect has similar vocabulary as the Yala subdialect of Yen-Yala-Kyepu dialect. However, the language is spoken with a Tamang languageTamang language
Tamang is a term used to collectively refer to a dialect cluster spoken in parts of Nepal and Sikkim. It comprises Eastern Tamang, Northwestern Tamang, Southwestern Tamang, Eastern Gorkha Tamang, and Western Tamang...
tone.
now-a-days,in this district tamang cast lives than other cast's people.
in new Nepal's constitution assembly the largest party of Nepal proposed in tamsaling rajya for this district in their federation module..
Chitlang
This dialect is used in Chitlang, a place south of Kathmandu valley in Makawanpur district.this is one of the biggest newari basti at chitlang. Balami cast is stay in there. Recently a new committee named "Balami Samaaj" has been established to give a new identity rather than Newar but as the government has categorized balami in newar, this attempt fails.Kathmandu–Patan–Kirtipur
Also known as Ña-Yala-Kyēpu Bhāy, this is the most dominant form of language and very close to the standard form of language used in academics and media. It is also the most widely used dialect. Variations are seen in the use of the words, specially nouns, amongst the Buddhists and Hindus. The pronunciation also differ from place to place. E.g.: the people in Kathmandu pronounce "water" as la while the people in Bhaktapur say na, which means "muddy water" for the people of Kathmandu.Bhaktapur
Also known as Khvapa Bhāy , this dialect is more archaic than the standard. Variations exist in the use of this form of language in Bhaktapur, Banepa, Panauti and Dhulikhel.Other dialects
In addition to these dialects, there are a few sub-dialects spoken in Kathmandu valley and other parts of Nepal. These are spoken in surrounding villages of Kathmandu, Patan, Bhaktapur, Lubhu, Chitlang and Dolakha. The dialect spoken in Bandipur is the oldest form of Khwapa Bhaaye. The dialect spoken in Chainpur, Bhojpur, Terathum, Palpa is related to Kathmandu and Patan. The dialect spoken in Ridi, Baglung, Arughat (Gorkha) is closer to Bhaktapur.(Bhaktapur is also known as Bhadgaon.)
Sounds
The sounds are traditionally listed in the order vowelVowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
s, diphthong
Diphthong
A diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
s, anusvara
Anusvara
Anusvara is the diacritic used to mark a type of nasalization used in a number of Indic languages. Depending on the location of the anusvara in the word and the language within which it is used, its exact pronunciation can vary greatly....
and visarga
Visarga
Visarga is a Sanskrit word meaning "sending forth, discharge". In Sanskrit phonology , is the name of a phone, , written as IAST , Harvard-Kyoto , Devanagari . Visarga is an allophone of and in pausa...
, stop
Stop consonant
In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
s and nasal
Nasal consonant
A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :...
s (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the liquids and fricatives, written in IAST
IAST
The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization of Indic scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language.-Popularity:...
as follows (see the tables below for details):
- ;
- ;
Writing systems and grammar
Nepal Bhasa has been written in a variety of abugida
Abugida
An abugida , also called an alphasyllabary, is a segmental writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written as a unit: each unit is based on a consonant letter, and vowel notation is obligatory but secondary...
scripts. The scripts which have been used to write this language are:
- Brahmi scriptBrāhmī scriptBrāhmī is the modern name given to the oldest members of the Brahmic family of scripts. The best-known Brāhmī inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to the 3rd century BCE. These are traditionally considered to be early known examples of Brāhmī writing...
- Gupta scriptGupta scriptThe Gupta script was used for writing Sanskrit and is associated with the Gupta Empire of India which was a period of material prosperity and great religious and scientific developments. The Gupta script was descended from Brahmi and gave rise to the Nagari, Sharada and Siddham scripts...
- Prachalit script
- Ranjana scriptRanjana scriptThe Rañjanā script is an abugida writing system which developed in the 11th century. It is primarily used for writing Nepal Bhasa but is also used in monasteries of India, Tibet, coastline China, Mongolia, and Japan. It is usually written from left to right but the Kutakshar form is written from...
- BhujimolBhujimolBhujimol is the name of the most ancient form of the Nepal script. It is used to write Nepal Bhasa.-Etymology:The word "Bhujimol" comes from Nepalbhasa words "bhuji" meaning housefly and "mol" a word written at the end of scripts ....
- Devanagari script
Over the centuries, Nepal Bhasa has been written in many scripts, all of which are descended from the Brahmi script
Brāhmī script
Brāhmī is the modern name given to the oldest members of the Brahmic family of scripts. The best-known Brāhmī inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to the 3rd century BCE. These are traditionally considered to be early known examples of Brāhmī writing...
. All the scripts proceed from left to right, and include two separate sets of characters – a vowel set and a consonant set. Devanagari is the most widely-used script at the present, as it is the official script of Nepal as well as is used widely in neighbouring India. Ranjana script
Ranjana script
The Rañjanā script is an abugida writing system which developed in the 11th century. It is primarily used for writing Nepal Bhasa but is also used in monasteries of India, Tibet, coastline China, Mongolia, and Japan. It is usually written from left to right but the Kutakshar form is written from...
was the most widely-used script for Nepal Bhasa in ancient times, and is experiencing a sort of a revival due to recent cultural awareness. The Prachalit script, being similar to Devanagari, is also in use. The Brahmi and Golmol scripts are rarely used in present.
In overall writing system of Nepal Bhasa, there are four form of alphabets:
- Vowels called Ma Akha
- Consonants called Ba Akha
- Complex consonants called China Akha
- Numericals called Lyaa Akha
Vowels
The vowels, called MaAkha (माआखः) used in Nepal Bhasa are| Orthography | अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | अं | अः | ऋ | ॠ | ऌ | ॡ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Roman | a | aa | i | ii | u | uu | e | ai | o | au | am | aha | ru | Ru | lru | lRuu |
| IPA | /ə/ | /ɑː/ | /i/ | /iː/ | /u/ | /uː/ | /eː/ | /əi/ | /oː/ | /əu/ | /əⁿ/ | /əʰ/ | /ru/ | /ruː/ | /lru/ | /lruː/ |
Even though ऋ, ॠ, ऌ, ॡ are present in Nepal Bhasa, they are rarely used. Instead, some of the experts are suggesting to include अय्(aya)and आय्(aaya) in the list of vowels.
Consonants
The consonants, called BaAkha(बाआखः), used in Nepal Bhasa are:| क | ख | ग | घ | ङ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| k /k/ |
kh /kʰ/ |
g /ɡ/ |
gh /ɡʱ/ |
ng /ŋ/ |
| च | छ | ज | झ | ञ |
| ch /cɕ/ or /ts/ |
chh /cɕʰ/ |
j or z /ɟʝ/ or /dz/ |
jh or zh /ɟʝʱ/ or /dzʱ/ |
ny /ɲ/ |
| ट | ठ | ड | ढ | ण |
| t /ʈ/ |
th /ʈʰ/ |
d /ɖ/ |
dh /ɖʱ/ |
n /ɳ/ |
| त | थ | द | ध | न |
| t /t̪/ |
th /t̪ʰ/ |
d /d̪/ |
dh /d̪ʱ/ |
n /n̪/ |
| प | फ | ब | भ | म |
| p /p/ |
ph or f /pʰ/ or /f/ |
b /b/ |
bh /bʱ/ |
m /m/ |
| य | र | ल | व | |
| y /j/ |
r /ɾ/ |
l /l/ |
v or w /v/ or /w/ |
|
| श | ष | स | ह | |
| s /ɕ/ |
sh /ʃ/ |
s /s/ |
h /h/ |
|
| क्ष | त्र | ज्ञ | ||
| ksh /kʃ/ |
tr /t̪ɾ/ |
gny /ɡɲ/ |
||
The use of ङ and ञ was very common in the old form of language. However, in the new form, specially in written, the use of these characters has diminished. The use of ण, त, थ, द, ध, न, श, ष, क्ष, त्र, ज्ञ (in darker color above) are limited by the new Grammar books to the loan words only.
Complex/compound consonants
Besides the consonants mentioned above, some complex consonants called China Akha (चिना आखः) are also used. These China Akha represent the Sino-Tibetan characteristics of the language. The most used of these complex consonants, which by some are considered individual letters, are :- न्ह
- म्ह
- ल्ह
- ह्र
Numericals
The numericals used in Nepal Bhasa have ten digits from 0-9. The numericals used in Ranjana script are as follows (from 0 to 9)| ० | १ | २ | ३ | ४ | ५ | ६ | ७ | ८ | ९ |
| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
Literature
Nepal Bhasa literature
- History :Nepal Bhasa has a long history as regards literature. It has the fourth-oldest literature of the Sino-Tibetan languages .Here is a list of literary figures of the language....
Nepal Bhasa literature has a long history. It has the fourth-oldest literature of the Sino-Tibetan languages (the first, second and third being Chinese, Tibetan and Burmese respectively).
Drama
DramaDrama
Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance. The term comes from a Greek word meaning "action" , which is derived from "to do","to act" . The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage before an audience, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a...
s are traditionally performed in open Dabu (stage). Most of the traditional dramas are related to deities and demons. Masked characters are central to such dramas. Music forms an important part of drama. Most of them are narrated with the help of songs sang at intervals. The drama as such resembles dance in many cases. The theme of most of the drama is to create a social wellbeing with morals illustrating the rise, turbulence and fall of evil. There are fixed dates in the Nepal Sambat
Nepal Sambat
Nepal Sambat is the national lunar calendar of Nepal. It was used throughout Medieval Nepal, and into early modern Nepal, until Chandra Sumsher decided to remove it in BS 1960. It was started in 880 AD during the reign of King Raghav Dev to commemorate the payment of all the debts of Nepalese...
(Nepal Era) calendar for performance of specific drama. Most of the dramas are carried out by specific Guthi
Guthi
Guthi is a social organization that used to maintain the social order of Newar society. Presently, most of the guthis are defunct and are vestigeal representation of what once was the most powerful social organization of the Newars....
s.
Poetry
PoetryPoetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
writing constituted a pompous part of medieval Malla aristrocracy. Many of the kings were well renowned poets. Siddhidas Mahaju
Siddhidas Mahaju
Siddhidas Mahaju is one of the greatest writers in Nepal Bhasa literature. He is considered as the greatest poet in the language. He translated Ramayana to Nepal Bhasa. He is one of the four main people involved in Nepal Bhasa renaissance.-Influences:He influenced every single poet and writer...
and Chittadhar Hridaya
Chittadhar Hridaya
Chittadhar Hridaya was a Nepalese poet. He is regarded as one of the greatest literary figures from Nepal in the 20th century. The title of Kavi Keshari was conferred on him by King Mahendra of Nepal in 1956...
are two great poets in the language.
Prose fiction
This is a relatively new field of literature compared to other fields. Most of the fiction were written in poetry form till the medieval era. So, almost all of prose fiction belong to the modern Nepal Bhasa. Collective short stories in Nepal Bhasa are more popular than novels.Story
The art of verbal storyFolklore
Folklore consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales and customs that are the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. The study of folklore is sometimes called...
telling is very old in Nepal Bhasa. There are a variety of mythical and social stories that have aided in establishing the norm of Kathmandu valley. Stories ranging from the origin of Kathmandu valley to the temples of the valley and the important monuments have been passed down verbally in Nepal Bhasa and very few are present in written form. However, with an increase in literacy rate and an awareness amongst the people, those stories have been penned down. Stories on other topics have also taken root.
Nepal Bhasa and Newar community
Relative to many other languages of Nepal, Nepal Bhasa enjoyed promotions in various areas since Kathmandu become the capital of the country, as the Newar community rose in ranks throughout the government, royal courts and businesses.
Nepal Bhasa faced a decline during the Shah era when this language was replaced by Khas Kura (later renamed Nepali) as the national language and after the introduction of the "One nation, one language" policy of King Mahendra. The then Royal Nepalese Government spent a lot for Sanskrit education and a Sanskrit University was approved during those times—although Sanskrit is virtually not spoken by anyone in Nepal—because Khas Kura's roots lie in Sanskrit. There were very few resources available then for even primary-level education in Nepal Bhasa. There were no programs broadcast in Nepal Bhasa in the state radio, Radio Nepal. Even after programs in Nepal Bhasa began to be broadcast, the language was referred to as "Newari", a term considered derogatory by Newars. Even today, there are no programs in Nepal Bhasa in the state television, Nepal Television, although it broadcasts a Bollywood Hindi movie every Saturday (although it is used as lingua franca in Terai, Hindi is mother tongue of less than 1% population in Nepal) and often Pakistani serials (in Urdu) as well. The Supreme Court of Nepal has also banned any use of Nepal Bhasa even for trivial matters in official purposes of any part of Nepal. These factors have led to a resentment among Newar community and a feeling of "second class" citizen in one's own state.
This fact has been used for political advantages by many parties of Nepal. Many slogans are translated into Nepal Bhasa, although very few important documents of political parties are ever translated into Nepal Bhasa.
Sentence structure
Statement sentence-This language is a SOV
SOV
SOV is an acronym for several terms:in organizations*Same Old Vanderbilt, usually refers to Vanderbilt Commodores football by their fans due to lack of success over the years*Stade Olympique Voironnais, a French rugby union club...
(subject–object–verb) language. For instance, "My name is Bilat (Birat)" is "Jigu Na'aa Bilat Khaa'a " which word by word translation becomes, "My(Jigu) Name(Na'aa) Bilat is(Khaa'a)".
Interrogative sentence-
Wh-question:
In case of Newari language, Wh-questions are rather "G-questions" with "when/which" being replaced by "Gublay/Gugu" respectively. There is an additional "Guli" which is used for "How much/How many". A S-word "Soo" is used for "who". "Chhoo/Schoo (with a silent 's')" is used for "What", and "Gathey" is used for "How".
2. Affixes
i. Suffix- "Chaa" and "Ju" are two popular suffixes. "Chaa" is added to signify "junior" or "lesser". But when added to a name, itis used derogatorily. For example, kya'ah-chaa means nephew where "chaa" is being added to kya'ah(son). When added to name like Birat
for "Birat-chaa", it is being used derogatorily. The suffix "ju" is added to show respect. For example, "Baa-ju" means "father-in-law"
where "ju" is added to "Baa(father)". Unlike "chaa", "ju" is not added to a first/last name directly. Instead, honorific terms like
"Bhaaju" is added for males and "Mayju" for females. Example, "Birat bhaaju" for a male name (Birat) and "Suja Mayju" for a female name (Suja).
ii. Prefix – "Tap'ah" is added to denote "remote" or "distant" relative ('distance' in relationship irrespective of spatial extent). A distant (younger) brother (kija) becomes "tap'ah-kija". "Tuh" is added to denote "higher". Father (baa)'s senior brother is referred to as "Tuh-baa".
Some common phrases and terms in Newari and Nepali
| English | Nepal Bhasa Devanagari |
Nepal Bhasa Roman script |
Khas Bhasa (Nepali) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hello | ज्वजलपा | Jvajalapā! | Namaste |
| What is your name? | छिगु नां: छु खः ? | Chigu nāṁḥ chu khaḥ? | Tapa'ee'ko naam k' ho? |
| My name is ___ | जिगु नां: ___ ख: | Jigu nāṁ: ___ khaḥ. | Mero naam ___ ho |
| Happy New Year | न्हूदँया भिंतुना | Nhūdaṁyā bhintunā | Na'ya barsh'a ko'o shubkamana |
| Thank You | शुभाय् | Śubhāy | Dhandyabad |
| Welcome | लसकुस | Lasakusa! | Swagat chha |
| Yes | खः | Khaḥ | Ho |
| No | मखु | Makhu | Ho'eena |
| Okay | ज्यु | Jyu | Thik chha |
| Not Okay | मज्यु | Majyu | Thik chha'ee'na |
| Friend | पासा | Pāsā | Saathi |
| Organization | गुथि | Guthi | Sansthan |
| House | छें | Chēṁ | Ghar |
| Human | मनु | Manu | Manaw |
| Medicine | वास: | Vāsaḥ | Owkhati/ Owsadhi |
| News | बुखं | Bukhaṁ | Samachar |
| Dance | प्याखं | Pyākhaṁ | Naach |
| Man | मि:जं | Miḥjaṁ | Manchhe |
| Woman | मि:शा | Miḥśā | Aa'ee'maa'ee |
| Gentleman | भाजु | Bhāju | Mahodaya |
| Madam | म्येजु | Myēju | Mahodaya |
| Young Man | ल्याम: | Lyāmaḥ | Yuwa'a |
| Young Lady | ल्यासी | Lyāsī | Yuwa'ati |
| Song | म्ये | Myē | Geet |
| Stage | दबली, दबू: | Dabalī, dabūḥ | munch |
| Palace | लाय्कू | Lāykū | Durbar |
| Office | ज्यास: | Jyāsaḥ | Karyalaya |
| Shop | पस: | Pasah | Pasal |
| Courtyard | चूक | Cūka | Chowk |
| Brain | न्ह्यपु | Nhyapu | Dimag |
| Heart | नुगः | Nugaḥ | Mutu |
| Water | लः, ना | Laḥ, Nā | Pani |
| Rain | वा | Vā | Warsha'aa |
| Wife's parents place | Suhsuh | Suhsurali | |
| I don't understand Nepal Bhasa | जित: नेपाल भाषा मवः | Jitaḥ Nēpāl bhāṣā mavaḥ | Ma'laee Nepal Bhasa aa'un'da'een'a |
| Earthquake | Bho'khabo | Bhukampa |
Relationship
| English | Devanagari | Roman script | Khas Bhasa (Nepali) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mother | मां | Māṁ | Aa'maa |
| Father | अबु | Abu | Ba'aa |
| Grandmother | अजी | Ajī | Ba'jya'ee |
| Grandfather | अजा | Ajā | Baaj'ey |
| Brother (Elder) | दाजु | Dāju | Dai |
| Brother (younger) | किजा | Kijā | Bhai |
| Sister (elder) | तता | Tatā | Didi |
| Sister (younger) | कें | Kēṁ | Bahini |
| Uncle (Mother's brother) | पाजु | Pāju | Mama |
| Uncle (Father's brother) | त: बा / क: का | Taḥbā (elder brother), Kaḥkā (younger brother) | Thool-buwa (elder brother) / Kaka (younger brother) |
| Uncle (Father's sister's husband) | पाजु | Pāju | Phoophajyu |
| Aunty (Father's sister) | निनी | Ninī | Phoophoo |
| Aunty (Mother's sister) | त:मा | Taḥmā | Thool-ama (elder sister)/Kanchhi amaa (younger sister) |
| Aunty (Father's elder brother's wife) | त: मा | Taḥmā | Thooli-ama |
| Aunty (Father's younger brother's wife) | काकी | Kākī | Kaki |
| Aunty (Mother's brother's wife) | मल्जु | Malju | Maijyu |
| Son | काय: | Kāyaḥ | Chhora |
| Daughter | मयाह: | Mayāhaḥ | Chhori |
| Nephew (Brother's son) | कय:चा | Kayaḥcā | Bhatija |
| Niece (Brother's daughter) | मयाह: चा | Mayāhahcā | Bhatiji |
| Nephew (Sister's son) | भिन्चा | Bhincā | Bhanja |
| Niece (Sister's daughter) | भिन्चा | Bhincā | Bhanji |
| Grandchild | छ्ये | Chyē | Nati/Natini (male/female) |
| Daughter-in-law | ब्हऔ | Bḥa'au | Buhari |
| Son-in-law | जीलाजं | Jīlājaṁ | Jwaeen (nasalised 'n') |
| Wife's parents | ससः बा | Sasaḥ bā (Father) / Suh'suhmaa (Mother) | Suhsurobaa (Father) / Saasoo (Mother) |
| Husband's parents | ससः मा | Sasaḥma (Mother) | Suhsura (Father) / Saasoo (Mother) |
Cuisine
Common| Meaning | Devanagari | Roman |
|---|---|---|
| Cooked Rice | जा: | Jāh |
| Rice | जाकि | Jāki |
| Poha (Beaten Rice) | वजी | Vajī |
| Meat (Buff / Chicken / Lamb / Pork) | ला: (मेइ ला / खाई ला / दुकुचिउ ला / फाई ला) | Lāh (mei lah / khai lah/ dukuchiu lah / fai lah) |
| Dry Meat (Jerky) | सुकुला: | Sukulāh |
| Yogurt | धौ | Dhau |
Special
| Devanagari | Roman | Ingredient |
|---|---|---|
| य: मरी | Yah Marī | Rice Flour, Meat, Chaku (sweet) or Maa(pulses) or Muu(pulses) |
| चट्टाँ मरी | chatanmari | Rice Flour |
| त: खा | Tah Khā | Terrin of Buffalo meat |
| स:न्या: खूना | Sahnyāh khūnā | Terrin of buffalo meat and tiny fresh water fish |
| से ला: | Sēlāh | Buffalo lungs |
| छोय् ला: | Chōy lāh | Meat (mainly Buffalo, Duck), chiles, onion, oil |
| वारा | Vārā | Maa (pulses) or Muu (pulses) |
| सम:य बजी | Samah ya bajī | Bāra, (bolied) Egg*, fresh water fish, pulses, Beaten Rice, Fried Beaten Rice, Ginger etc. |
| थ्व: | Tvah | type of alcohol |
| एला: | Ēlāh | Strong alcohol |
- Duck egg for special occasion (rituals, sagun/sagā, birthday)
Animal names
| English | Devanagari | Roman script | Khas Bhasa (Nepali) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ant | ईमू | Īmū | Kamila |
| Buffalo | Mehn (nasalised "n") | Rang'o/Bhaise | |
| Bull | Dohn (nasalised "n") | Goru | |
| Cat | भैचा | Bhaicā | Biralo |
| Cockroach | Bili | Sāngla | |
| Cow | Sahn (silent "n") | Gai | |
| Crow | को | Kō | Kag |
| Dog | खिचा | Khicā | Kukur |
| Duck | हें | Hēṁ | Hahns (slightly nasalised 'n') |
| Eagle | Emaa | Cheel | |
| Earthworm | Dumbi | Gadeaula | |
| Snakes | Ta:ha | Sarpa | |
| Elephant | Kisi | Hatti | |
| Fish | न्याँ | Nyām̐ | Machha |
| Hen/Chicken | खा: | Khāh | Kukhura |
| Horse | सल: | salah | ghoda |
| Kite | Bhutimali | Changaa | |
| Monkey | माक: | Mākah | Badar |
| Mouse | छू: | Chūh | Musa |
| Owl | Bhulukha | Latokosero | |
| Pigeon | वखूँचा | Vakhūm̐cā | Parewa |
| Pig | फा | Phā | Sungur |
| Sparrow | चखू: | Cakhūh | Bhangero (nasalised 'n') |
| Toad/Frog | बय्याँ | Bayyām̐ | Bhyaguta |
Color
| English | Devanagari | Roman script | Khas Bhasa (Nepali) |
|---|---|---|---|
| White | तूयु | Tuyu | Seto |
| Black | हाकू | Haku | Kalo |
| Red | ह्याँगू | Hyau'n (nasalised 'n') | Rato |
| Green | Wau'n (nasalised 'n') | Hariyo | |
| Blue | Wo'chu'n (nasalised 'n') | Nilo | |
| Yellow | Mhasu'n (nasalised 'n') | Pahelo | |
| Brown | Siyugu (nasalised 'n') | Khairo |
Few words--origin--meaning
(From the review article on "Dictionary of classical Newari compiled from manuscript sources." With the huge financial support of Toyota foundation, Japan, Nepal Bhasa Dictionary Committee. Cwasā Pāsā. Kathmandu: Modern Printing Press, Jamal 2000, pp. XXXV, 530. ISBN 99933-31-60-0")| Words | Origin (orig. word) | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| La:h (ल:) | Pali (Jala:h) | Water |
| Kaa:sa | Pali | Bronze |
| Kaji | Arabic | leader |
| Khaapaa (खापा) | Pali | Door (Original meaning in Pali was "door panel") |
| Kimi (कीमी) | Sanskrit (Krmi) | Hookworm |
| Adha:vata | Persian Persian language Persian is an Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and countries which historically came under Persian influence... |
Malice |
| Ka:h | Pali (Kana) | Blind (Original meaning in Pali was "one-eyed") |
| Dya:h | Pali (Dev) | Deity |
| Nhya:h | Pali (Na:sika) | Nose |
| Mhu:tu | Pali (Mukhena) | Mouth |
| Khicha: (खिचा) | Pali (Kukkura) | Dog |