Networked learning
Encyclopedia
Networked learning is a process of developing and maintaining connections with people and information, and communicating in such a way so as to support one another's learning
.
The central term in this definition is connections. It takes a relational stance in which learning takes place both in relation to others and in relation to learning resources.
CSALT, a research group at Lancaster University, UK, associated with the Networked Learning Conference series and several edited collections, has defined networked learning as "learning in which information and communication technology is used to promote connections: between one learner and other learners, between learners and tutors; between a learning community and its learning resources."
Salmon (2001) wrote "learning is built around learning communities & interaction, extending access beyond the bounds of time and space, but offering the promise of efficiency and widening access. Think of individuals as nodes on a network!"
Networked learning can be practised in both informal
and formal educational settings. In formal settings the learning achieved through networked communication is formally facilitated, assessed and/or recognised by an educational organisation. In an informal setting, individuals maintain a learning network for their own interests, for learning "on-the-job", or for research purposes.
It has been suggested that networked learning offers educational institutions more functional efficiency, in that the curriculum can be more tightly managed centrally, or in the case of vocational learning, it can reduce costs to employers and tax payers. However, it is also argued that networked learning is too often considered within the presumption of institutionalised or educationalised learning, thereby omitting awareness of the benefits that networked learning has to informal or situated learning
.
envisioned 'learning webs' as a model for people to network the learning they needed:
In 1977 Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King and Shlomo Angel wrote and published A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction
. In this seminal text, mostly referred to by architects, lists a "Network of Learning" as the 18th pattern ( p99) and cites Illich's earlier book as "the most penetrating analysis and proposal for an alternative framework for education.." Alexander et al. go on to advise builders and town planners interested in establishing learning networks with:
In the 1970s, The Institute For The Future at Menlo Park
in California experimented with networked learning practices based on the Internet and computer conferencing. Soon after their reports were published two educational pioneers in the use of Internet technologies, Hiltz and Turoff, linked education directly with this pioneering work
on the East Coast of the United States. Findley's project conducted trend analysis and developed prototypes of collaborative learning environments, which became the basis for their further research and development of what they called Collaborative Networked Learning (CNL), and Collaborative Learning-Work (CLW).
The idea that the Internet would enhance opportunities for networked approaches to learning was sketched out by several authors in the late 1980s and early 1990s. For example Harasim et al. (1995) wrote in terms of Network Learning and suggested that:
as a significant medium for access to information and communication, the practice of networked learning has tended to focus on its use. In the first phase of the Internet its use for networked learning was restricted by low bandwidth and the emphasis was largely on written and text based interactions between people and the text based resources they referred to. This textual form of interaction was a familiar academic medium, even though there was recognition of the unique qualities hypertext
emerging in the online form.
In 1991, Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger published Situated Learning
: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, in which they cited numerous examples of networked learning within a wide range of settings for informal learning and within communities of practice.
In the later half of the 1990s, open, interactive, situated and networked views of learning were marginalised by educational institutions as they tended to develop or deploy content and practice through proprietary learning management systems (e.g. Blackboard Inc, WebCT
), and collaborative work tools such as IBM Lotus Notes/Learning Space and Quick Place), generally following concepts around "e-learning
". These systems enabled the restriction of access and the management of students for the administrative concerns of educational institutions.
Since 1998, an international Networked Learning Conference has been held biannually. The conference proceedings from all the conferences since 2002 are available via the conference web site.
and concepts of open source
.
In 2005, George Siemens
published a paper in the International Journal for Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, called Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age in which he argued the need for a new learning theory, one that captured the essence and represented the process of networked knowledge creation and learning. In 2011, the International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning published the first peer reviewed collection of scholarly articles on Connectivism. This special issue was edited by George Siemens (Athabasca University and Grainne Conole (Open University, UK)..
In 2007, Starke-Meyerring, Duin, & Palvetzian first described Globally Networked Learning Environments (GNLE), a term that refers to networked learning environments which are specifically designed to connect students from different parts of the world. GNLEs are designed to facilitate dialogue and collaboration across and within groups of students, to develop greater understanding and competencies for global work and citizenship. GNLEs take many different shapes and forms, primarily because their inherent uniqueness which is derived from the intersection of the different course topics and content, the teachers' pedagogical approaches, the partnerships between the teachers, and their local and national policy environments. In addition, technological capabilities and capacities (including 'know how' and access) of the teachers, students, and their institutions also play a significant role in how the GNLE is designed and developed. In Higher Education
, generally these learning environments have emerged from grassroots initiatives from faculty, but some have emerged and are supported by third party institutions such as the NGO Soliya and institutional centers such as the SUNY Center for Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL).
In 2010, E-Learning and Digital Media published a special issue on globally networked learning titled Globally networked learning environments: Re-shaping the intersections of globalization and e-learning in higher education, and in 2011, COIL launched the first ever Institute for Globally Networked Learning in the Humanities.
Earlier examples of online courses using networked learning methods:
To the study's own admission, there was no control group and that other factors, such as varying school socioeconomic status and after-school programs, could have influenced the quantitative results.
The yearly cost for resources in the NLC programme was about £50,000 (approximately US$95,000 in 2008) per school network. After the NLC programme ended in 2006, the school networks had to find other partnerships to continue. There might be school boards that would not be willing to financially invest in the initial implementation and eventual maintenance of a networked learning system.
and Actor-network theory
as the better approach for research.
Learning
Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves.Human learning...
.
The central term in this definition is connections. It takes a relational stance in which learning takes place both in relation to others and in relation to learning resources.
CSALT, a research group at Lancaster University, UK, associated with the Networked Learning Conference series and several edited collections, has defined networked learning as "learning in which information and communication technology is used to promote connections: between one learner and other learners, between learners and tutors; between a learning community and its learning resources."
Salmon (2001) wrote "learning is built around learning communities & interaction, extending access beyond the bounds of time and space, but offering the promise of efficiency and widening access. Think of individuals as nodes on a network!"
Networked learning can be practised in both informal
Informal learning
Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the OECD. The other two are formal and non-formal learning. Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners this...
and formal educational settings. In formal settings the learning achieved through networked communication is formally facilitated, assessed and/or recognised by an educational organisation. In an informal setting, individuals maintain a learning network for their own interests, for learning "on-the-job", or for research purposes.
It has been suggested that networked learning offers educational institutions more functional efficiency, in that the curriculum can be more tightly managed centrally, or in the case of vocational learning, it can reduce costs to employers and tax payers. However, it is also argued that networked learning is too often considered within the presumption of institutionalised or educationalised learning, thereby omitting awareness of the benefits that networked learning has to informal or situated learning
Situated learning
Situated learning was first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a Community of practice. At its simplest, situated learning is learning that takes place in the same context in which it is applied...
.
1970s
In 1971, Ivan IllichIvan Illich
Ivan Illich was an Austrian philosopher, Roman Catholic priest, and "maverick social critic" of the institutions of contemporary western culture and their effects on the provenance and practice of education, medicine, work, energy use, transportation, and economic development.- Personal life...
envisioned 'learning webs' as a model for people to network the learning they needed:
- I will use the words "opportunity web" for "network" to designate specific ways to provide access to each of four sets of resources. "Network" is often used, unfortunately, to designate the channels reserved to material selected by others for indoctrination, instruction, and entertainment. But it can also be used for the telephone or the postal service, which are primarily accessible to individuals who want to send messages to one another. I wish we had another word to designate such reticular structures for mutual access, a word less evocative of entrapment, less degraded by current usage and more suggestive of the fact that any such arrangement includes legal, organizational, and technical aspects. Not having found such a term, I will try to redeem the one which is available, using it as a synonym of "educational web." Ivan Illich, 1971
In 1977 Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King and Shlomo Angel wrote and published A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction
A Pattern Language
A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction is a 1977 book on architecture, urban design, and community livability. It was authored by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa and Murray Silverstein of the Center for Environmental Structure of Berkeley, California, with writing credits also to...
. In this seminal text, mostly referred to by architects, lists a "Network of Learning" as the 18th pattern ( p99) and cites Illich's earlier book as "the most penetrating analysis and proposal for an alternative framework for education.." Alexander et al. go on to advise builders and town planners interested in establishing learning networks with:
- "...work in piecemeal ways to decentralize the process of learning and enrich it through contact with many places and people all over the city: workshops, teachers at home or walking through the city, professionals willing to take on the young as helpers, older children teaching younger children, museums, youth groups travelling, scholarly seminars, industrial workshops, old people, and so on. Conceive of all these situations as forming the backbone of the learning process; survey all these situations, describe them, and publish them as the city's "curriculum"; then let students, children, their families and neighborhoods weave together for themselves the situations that comprise their "school" paying as they go with standard vouchers, raised by community tax. Build new educational facilities in a way which extends and enriches this network."
In the 1970s, The Institute For The Future at Menlo Park
Menlo Park, California
Menlo Park, California is a city at the eastern edge of San Mateo County, in the San Francisco Bay Area of California, in the United States. It is bordered by San Francisco Bay on the north and east; East Palo Alto, Palo Alto, and Stanford to the south; Atherton, North Fair Oaks, and Redwood City...
in California experimented with networked learning practices based on the Internet and computer conferencing. Soon after their reports were published two educational pioneers in the use of Internet technologies, Hiltz and Turoff, linked education directly with this pioneering work
1980s
In the late 1980s Dr. Charles A. Findley headed the Collaborative Networked Learning project at Digital Equipment CorporationDigital Equipment Corporation
Digital Equipment Corporation was a major American company in the computer industry and a leading vendor of computer systems, software and peripherals from the 1960s to the 1990s...
on the East Coast of the United States. Findley's project conducted trend analysis and developed prototypes of collaborative learning environments, which became the basis for their further research and development of what they called Collaborative Networked Learning (CNL), and Collaborative Learning-Work (CLW).
The idea that the Internet would enhance opportunities for networked approaches to learning was sketched out by several authors in the late 1980s and early 1990s. For example Harasim et al. (1995) wrote in terms of Network Learning and suggested that:
- "Network learners of the future will have access to formal and informal education of their choice, wherever they are located, whenever they are able to participate … The network learner will be an active participant … learning with and from experts and peers wherever they are located" ( p273)
1990s
Since the development of the InternetInternet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
as a significant medium for access to information and communication, the practice of networked learning has tended to focus on its use. In the first phase of the Internet its use for networked learning was restricted by low bandwidth and the emphasis was largely on written and text based interactions between people and the text based resources they referred to. This textual form of interaction was a familiar academic medium, even though there was recognition of the unique qualities hypertext
Hypertext
Hypertext is text displayed on a computer or other electronic device with references to other text that the reader can immediately access, usually by a mouse click or keypress sequence. Apart from running text, hypertext may contain tables, images and other presentational devices. Hypertext is the...
emerging in the online form.
In 1991, Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger published Situated Learning
Situated learning
Situated learning was first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a Community of practice. At its simplest, situated learning is learning that takes place in the same context in which it is applied...
: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, in which they cited numerous examples of networked learning within a wide range of settings for informal learning and within communities of practice.
In the later half of the 1990s, open, interactive, situated and networked views of learning were marginalised by educational institutions as they tended to develop or deploy content and practice through proprietary learning management systems (e.g. Blackboard Inc, WebCT
WebCT
WebCT or Blackboard Learning System, now owned by Blackboard, is an online proprietary virtual learning environment system that is sold to colleges and other institutions and used in many campuses for e-learning...
), and collaborative work tools such as IBM Lotus Notes/Learning Space and Quick Place), generally following concepts around "e-learning
E-learning
E-learning comprises all forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and communication systems, whether networked learning or not, serve as specific media to implement the learning process...
". These systems enabled the restriction of access and the management of students for the administrative concerns of educational institutions.
Since 1998, an international Networked Learning Conference has been held biannually. The conference proceedings from all the conferences since 2002 are available via the conference web site.
2000s
From around 2004, the idea of networked learning had a popular resurgence, corresponding with the emergence of social mediaSocial media
The term Social Media refers to the use of web-based and mobile technologies to turn communication into an interactive dialogue. Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein define social media as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0,...
and concepts of open source
Open source
The term open source describes practices in production and development that promote access to the end product's source materials. Some consider open source a philosophy, others consider it a pragmatic methodology...
.
In 2005, George Siemens
George Siemens
George Siemens is a theorist on learning in a digitally based society. He is the author of the article and the book - an exploration of the impact of the changed context and characteristics of knowledge....
published a paper in the International Journal for Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, called Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age in which he argued the need for a new learning theory, one that captured the essence and represented the process of networked knowledge creation and learning. In 2011, the International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning published the first peer reviewed collection of scholarly articles on Connectivism. This special issue was edited by George Siemens (Athabasca University and Grainne Conole (Open University, UK)..
In 2007, Starke-Meyerring, Duin, & Palvetzian first described Globally Networked Learning Environments (GNLE), a term that refers to networked learning environments which are specifically designed to connect students from different parts of the world. GNLEs are designed to facilitate dialogue and collaboration across and within groups of students, to develop greater understanding and competencies for global work and citizenship. GNLEs take many different shapes and forms, primarily because their inherent uniqueness which is derived from the intersection of the different course topics and content, the teachers' pedagogical approaches, the partnerships between the teachers, and their local and national policy environments. In addition, technological capabilities and capacities (including 'know how' and access) of the teachers, students, and their institutions also play a significant role in how the GNLE is designed and developed. In Higher Education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
, generally these learning environments have emerged from grassroots initiatives from faculty, but some have emerged and are supported by third party institutions such as the NGO Soliya and institutional centers such as the SUNY Center for Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL).
In 2010, E-Learning and Digital Media published a special issue on globally networked learning titled Globally networked learning environments: Re-shaping the intersections of globalization and e-learning in higher education, and in 2011, COIL launched the first ever Institute for Globally Networked Learning in the Humanities.
MOOC
A Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) engages networked learning methods within the typical structure of a course. The first such course so named was Connectivism and Connective Knowledge 2008, hosted by Stephen Downes and George Siemens. More like an online event, MOOCs invite open online participation around a schedule or agenda, facilitated by people with reputation or expertise in the topics, relying on successful formations of learning networks to assist people studying the topics.Earlier examples of online courses using networked learning methods:
- Introduction to Open Education - 2007 course by David WileyDavid A. WileyDavid A. Wiley is an Associate Professor of Instructional Psychology & Technology at Brigham Young University. He is also Chief Openness Officer of Flat World Knowledge and founder of the Open High School of Utah...
. - Composing free and open education resources - Run in 2008 by the The School of Art Education, University of Art and Design Helsinki.
- Facilitating Online - 2008 course established by Leigh Blackall and Bronwyn Hegarty for Otago PolytechnicOtago PolytechnicThe Otago Polytechnic is a public New Zealand tertiary education institute, centred in Dunedin with campuses throughout the region of Otago including Cromwell, Wanaka and Queenstown....
, and has since run in 2009, 2010, and 2011. - Connectivism - 2008 course run by George SiemensGeorge SiemensGeorge Siemens is a theorist on learning in a digitally based society. He is the author of the article and the book - an exploration of the impact of the changed context and characteristics of knowledge....
and Stephen DownesStephen DownesStephen Downes is a designer and commentator in the fields of online learning and new media. Downes has explored and promoted the educational use of computer and online technologies since 1995...
. - EC&I 831: Social Media & Open Education, 2008, 2009, 2010 By Alec Couros
- CCK09: Connectivism and Connective Knowledge - 2009 by George SiemensGeorge SiemensGeorge Siemens is a theorist on learning in a digitally based society. He is the author of the article and the book - an exploration of the impact of the changed context and characteristics of knowledge....
and Stephen DownesStephen DownesStephen Downes is a designer and commentator in the fields of online learning and new media. Downes has explored and promoted the educational use of computer and online technologies since 1995... - Digital Storytelling - 2010/2011 by Jim Groom, took the MOOC concepts into new dimensions with people creating celebratory media for the course, and the course itself breaking course like structure.
Open and Networked Research
Some researchers have used networked learning methods to collaborate and support each other's research. The Wikiversity page for Doctor of Philosophy is supporting a small group interested in pursuing a PhD title informally. They name their practice OpenPhD or Open and Networked PhD.The NLC Programme
In England, the National College of School Leadership (NCSL) ran a program called the Networked Learning Community (NLC) programme. More than 134 schools networks (an average of ten schools per network) were involved from 2002 to 2006. An English study compared the grades of the NLC schools versus the national sample. It concluded that there was large variation in scholarly improvement and that the overall improvement was aligned with the national trend. The study interpreted this result as a caution to the claims of digital networked learning scholarly effectiveness.To the study's own admission, there was no control group and that other factors, such as varying school socioeconomic status and after-school programs, could have influenced the quantitative results.
The yearly cost for resources in the NLC programme was about £50,000 (approximately US$95,000 in 2008) per school network. After the NLC programme ended in 2006, the school networks had to find other partnerships to continue. There might be school boards that would not be willing to financially invest in the initial implementation and eventual maintenance of a networked learning system.
Situated learning
Some have argued that using formal education as a setting for researching networked learning misses most if not all of the value proposition of networked learning. Instead, Fox proposes situated learningSituated learning
Situated learning was first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a Community of practice. At its simplest, situated learning is learning that takes place in the same context in which it is applied...
and Actor-network theory
Actor-network theory
Actor–network theory, often abbreviated as ANT, is a distinctive approach to social theory and research which originated in the field of science studies...
as the better approach for research.
See also
- Asynchronous LearningAsynchronous learningAsynchronous learning is a student-centered teaching method that uses online learning resources to facilitate information sharing outside the constraints of time and place among a network of people. Asynchronous learning is based on constructivist theory, a student-centered approach that...
- Actor-network theoryActor-network theoryActor–network theory, often abbreviated as ANT, is a distinctive approach to social theory and research which originated in the field of science studies...
- ConnectivismConnectivism (learning theory)Connectivism was introduced as a theory of learning based on the premise that knowledge exists in the world rather than in the head of an individual....
- AutodidacticismAutodidacticismAutodidacticism is self-education or self-directed learning. In a sense, autodidacticism is "learning on your own" or "by yourself", and an autodidact is a person who teaches him or herself something. The term has its roots in the Ancient Greek words αὐτός and διδακτικός...
- Situated learningSituated learningSituated learning was first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a Community of practice. At its simplest, situated learning is learning that takes place in the same context in which it is applied...
- Personal learning environmentsHistory of personal learning environmentsPersonal Learning Environments are systems that help learners take control of and manage their own learning. This includes providing support for learners to* set their own learning goals* manage their learning; managing both content and process...
- The Wealth of NetworksThe Wealth of NetworksThe Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom is a book by law professor Yochai Benkler published by Yale University Press on April 3, 2006....
- Social networkSocial networkA social network is a social structure made up of individuals called "nodes", which are tied by one or more specific types of interdependency, such as friendship, kinship, common interest, financial exchange, dislike, sexual relationships, or relationships of beliefs, knowledge or prestige.Social...
- Invisible CollegeInvisible CollegeThe Invisible College has been described as a precursor group to the Royal Society of London, consisting of a number of natural philosophers around Robert Boyle...
External links
- Networked Learning Conference Series
- National College for School Leadership - Networked Learning Communities (NLC) programme
- Networked Learning in Higher Education project by the Centre for Studies in Advanced Learning Technology
- Centre for the Study of Networked Learning and Knowledge Building
- Connectivism is a pedagogical view or learning theory (depending on who you listen to) on networked learning
- A slide show with audio explaining networked learning methods using social media
Books
- Blackall, L. (Ed.)(2006). The Future of Learning in a Networked World.
- Dirckinck-Holmfeld, L., Jones, C., and Lindström, B. (2009) Analysing Networked Learning Practices in Higher Education and Continuing Professional Development. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, BV. Preview available https://www.sensepublishers.com/files/9789460910074PR.pdf
- Koper, R. (Ed.)(2009), Learning Network Services for Professional Development. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
- Downes, S. (2007). Emerging technologies for learning.
- Goodyear, P. Banks, S. Hodgson, V. and McConnell, D. eds (2004) Advances in Research on Networked Learning. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
- Steeples, C. and Jones, C. eds (2002) Networked Learning: Perspectives and Issues. London: Springer.