Nkisi
Encyclopedia
Nkisi. The term Nkisi is the general name for a variety of objects used throughout the Congo Basin in Central Africa thought to contain spiritual powers or spirits. The term and its concept have passed with the slave trade to the Americas, especially Latin America (in Palo Mayombe the spirits of nkisi are often called "mpungo")).
ritual. Among the peoples of the Congo Basin
, especially the Bakongo and the Songye
people of Kasai, exceptional human powers are frequently believed to result from some sort of communication with the dead. People known as banganga
(singular: nganga
) work as healers, diviners, and mediators who defend the living against witchcraft and provide them with remedies against diseases resulting either from witchcraft or the demands of bakisi (spirits), emissaries from the land of the dead.
Banganga harness the powers of bakisi and the dead by making minkisi. Minkisi are primarily containers - ceramic vessels, gourds, animal horns, shells, bundles, or any other object that can contain spiritually-charged substances. Even graves themselves, as the home of the dead and hence the home of bakisi, can be considered as minkisi. In fact, minkisi have even been described as portable graves, and many include earth or relics from the grave of a powerful individual as a prime ingredient. The powers of the dead thus infuse the object and allow the nganga to control it.
The substances chosen for inclusion in minkisi are frequently chosen for metaphoric reasons, for example, bird claws in order to catch wrongdoers, or because their names resemble characteristics of spirits in question. Often the contents of minkisi were not chosen for any sort of practical pharmaceutical use, but instead because their names sounded similar to the specific goals of the nkisi and illustrated a play on words. Among the many common materials used in the minkisi were fruit ("luyala" in Kikongo - which is similar to "yaala," which means "that it may rule"), charcoal ("kalazima" in Kikongo - which is similar to "zima," which means "that it may strike or extinguish"), and mushrooms ("tondo" in Kikongo - which is similar to "tondwa," which means "that it may be desired"). Minerals were collected from various places associated with the dead, such as earth collected from graves and riverbeds. White clay was also very important in the composition of minkisi due to the symbolic relationship of the color white and the physical aspects of dead skin as well as their moral rightness. White contrasted with black, the color of negative ideas and concepts. Some minkisi use red ochre as a coloring agent. The use of red is symbolic of the mediation of the powers of the dead.
Minkisi serve many purposes. Some are used in divination practices. Many are used for healing, while others provide success in hunting, trade, or sex. Important minkisi are often credited with powers in multiple domains. Most famously, minkisi may also take the form of anthropomorphic or zoomorphic wooden carvings, and it is these that have principally interested art historians.
Birds of prey, lightning, weapons, and fire are all common themes among the minkisi of the above. They also affected the upper body. Head, neck, and chest pains were said to be caused by these nkisi figures. Some figures were in the form of animals. Most often these were dogs, referred to as Kozo. Dogs are closely tied to the spiritual world in Kongo theology. They live in two separate worlds, the village of the living, and the forest of the dead. Kozo figures were often portrayed as having two heads. This was symbolic of their ability to see both worlds.
The purpose of the minkisi of the above was largely civil in nature. They were used to maintain order and seal treaties. Perhaps the most common use was the locating and punishing of criminals. These figures, known as nkondi (plural varies according to dialect Minkondi, zinkondi) figures, were used primarily to hunt out wrongdoers and to avenge their crimes.
Nkondi figures ranged in size from small to life-size, and contained medicines, usually hidden by resin fixed mirrors. Nkondi were usually in the form of wooden figures with open cavities in their bodies for medicines. The most common place for storage was the belly. The KiKongo word for belly is "mooyo," which also means "life," and is most likely the reasoning behind the placement of the medicines. Other common places for medicines included the head and in pouches surrounding the neck. A nkisi/nkonde figure without medicine is useless and serves no purpose. It is simply a container that gains its power from the medicine.
In most nkondi figures the eyes and medicine pack covers were reflective glass or mirrors, used for divination. The nganga could use the mirrors to look into the world of the ancestors. Some nkondi figures were adorned with feathers. This goes along with the concept of the figures as being "of the above," and associates them with birds of prey.
The creation and use of nkondi figures was also a very important aspect to their success. Banganga often composed the nkondi figures at the edge of the village. The village was thought of as being similar to the human body. The idea that the edge and entrances needed to be protected from evil spirits occurred in both the human body and the village. When composing the minkisi the nganga is often isolated in a hidden camp, away from the rest of the village. After the nkisi was built and the nganga had learned its proper use and the corresponding songs, he returned to the village covered in paint and behaving in a strange manner.
The unusual behavior was to illustrate the ngangas return to the land of the living. Prior to using the nkondi, the nganga recited specific invocations to awaken the nkondi and activate its powers. During their performances, banganga often painted themselves. White circles around the eyes allowed them to see beyond the physical world and see the hidden
sources of evil and illness. White stripes were painted on the participants. Often the nganga was dressed similar to his nkondi. Banganga generally dressed in outfits that were vastly different than normal people. They wore ornate jewelry and often incorporated knots in their clothing. The knots were associated with a way of closing up or sealing of
spiritual forces.
The nkisi figures brought back to Europe in the nineteenth century in particular caused great interest in emerging trends in modern art, and African themes previously considered primitive or ugly were now viewed as aesthetically interesting. The pieces became influential art circles and many were acquired by art museums. The intentions of the banganga who created minkisi were practical, that is their characteristics were dictated by the need of the object to do the work it was required to do--hence the nails which caused a sensation were never seen as decorative items but as a requirement of awakening the spirit; or the gestures were part of a substantial metaphor of gestures found in Kongo culture.
Recently some modern artists have also been interested in creating nkisi of their own, most notably Renee Stout
, whose exhibition "Astonishment and Power" at the Smithsonian Institution coupled her own versions of nkisi with a commentary by noted anthropologist Wyatt MacGaffey.
Meaning
The root of the noun, -kis- refers to a transcendent spiritual power. It was reported as such as early as the early seventeenth century by Dutch visitors to Loango. In the sixteenth century, when the Kingdom of Kongo was converted to Christianity, ukisi (an adverbial form of the noun) was used to translate "holy". Travelers in earlier times often called nkisi "fetishes" and sometimes "idols" because some are in human form. Modern anthropology has generally called the either "power objects" or "charms."Use
Close communication with the dead and belief in the efficacy of their powers are closely associated with minkisi in KongoKongo people
The Bakongo or the Kongo people , also sometimes referred to as Kongolese or Congolese, is a Bantu ethnic group which lives along the Atlantic coast of Africa from Pointe-Noire to Luanda, Angola...
ritual. Among the peoples of the Congo Basin
Congo Basin
The Congo Basin is the sedimentary basin that is the drainage of the Congo River of west equatorial Africa. The basin begins in the highlands of the East African Rift system with input from the Chambeshi River, the Uele and Ubangi Rivers in the upper reaches and the Lualaba River draining wetlands...
, especially the Bakongo and the Songye
Songye
The Songye people are an ethnic group of the Democratic Republic of Congo , living in the Kasai-Oriental province along both sides of the Lualaba River. In 1985 it was estimated that the Songye numbered between 150,000 and 217,000. The Songye are divided into sub-groupings that are under the...
people of Kasai, exceptional human powers are frequently believed to result from some sort of communication with the dead. People known as banganga
Nganga
Nganga is a Bantu term for herbalist or spiritual healer in many African societies and also in many societies of the African diaspora such as those in Haiti, Brazil and Cuba....
(singular: nganga
Nganga
Nganga is a Bantu term for herbalist or spiritual healer in many African societies and also in many societies of the African diaspora such as those in Haiti, Brazil and Cuba....
) work as healers, diviners, and mediators who defend the living against witchcraft and provide them with remedies against diseases resulting either from witchcraft or the demands of bakisi (spirits), emissaries from the land of the dead.
Banganga harness the powers of bakisi and the dead by making minkisi. Minkisi are primarily containers - ceramic vessels, gourds, animal horns, shells, bundles, or any other object that can contain spiritually-charged substances. Even graves themselves, as the home of the dead and hence the home of bakisi, can be considered as minkisi. In fact, minkisi have even been described as portable graves, and many include earth or relics from the grave of a powerful individual as a prime ingredient. The powers of the dead thus infuse the object and allow the nganga to control it.
The substances chosen for inclusion in minkisi are frequently chosen for metaphoric reasons, for example, bird claws in order to catch wrongdoers, or because their names resemble characteristics of spirits in question. Often the contents of minkisi were not chosen for any sort of practical pharmaceutical use, but instead because their names sounded similar to the specific goals of the nkisi and illustrated a play on words. Among the many common materials used in the minkisi were fruit ("luyala" in Kikongo - which is similar to "yaala," which means "that it may rule"), charcoal ("kalazima" in Kikongo - which is similar to "zima," which means "that it may strike or extinguish"), and mushrooms ("tondo" in Kikongo - which is similar to "tondwa," which means "that it may be desired"). Minerals were collected from various places associated with the dead, such as earth collected from graves and riverbeds. White clay was also very important in the composition of minkisi due to the symbolic relationship of the color white and the physical aspects of dead skin as well as their moral rightness. White contrasted with black, the color of negative ideas and concepts. Some minkisi use red ochre as a coloring agent. The use of red is symbolic of the mediation of the powers of the dead.
Minkisi serve many purposes. Some are used in divination practices. Many are used for healing, while others provide success in hunting, trade, or sex. Important minkisi are often credited with powers in multiple domains. Most famously, minkisi may also take the form of anthropomorphic or zoomorphic wooden carvings, and it is these that have principally interested art historians.
Types
Minkisi and the afflictions associated with them are generally classified into two types. Some are "of the above," and some are "of the below." The "above" minkisi are associated with the sky, rain and thunderstorms. Those "of the below" are associated with earth and waters on land. The minkisi "of above" were considered masculine and were closely tied to violence and violent forces. They seemed to hold a higher importance; at least according to the masculine members of the culture who wrote on the subject.Birds of prey, lightning, weapons, and fire are all common themes among the minkisi of the above. They also affected the upper body. Head, neck, and chest pains were said to be caused by these nkisi figures. Some figures were in the form of animals. Most often these were dogs, referred to as Kozo. Dogs are closely tied to the spiritual world in Kongo theology. They live in two separate worlds, the village of the living, and the forest of the dead. Kozo figures were often portrayed as having two heads. This was symbolic of their ability to see both worlds.
The purpose of the minkisi of the above was largely civil in nature. They were used to maintain order and seal treaties. Perhaps the most common use was the locating and punishing of criminals. These figures, known as nkondi (plural varies according to dialect Minkondi, zinkondi) figures, were used primarily to hunt out wrongdoers and to avenge their crimes.
Nkondi
Nkondi are minkisi power figures with nails or blades driven into them. Healers drive nails into the figures as part of a petition for help, healing, or witness-particulary of contracts and pledges. The purpose of the nailing is to "awaken" and sometimes to "enrage" the nkisi to the task in hand, but in any case the term "koma loka" (to drive in a curse) connects the action to "kindoki" often associated with witchcraft, but in fact referring to many types of Otherworldly activities. Some scholars believe that the Portuguese missionaries brought images of Christ nailed to the cross and the martyr Saint Sebastian to the peoples of Central Africa, and these experts believe that this iconography maybe have influenced nkisi tradition.Nkondi figures ranged in size from small to life-size, and contained medicines, usually hidden by resin fixed mirrors. Nkondi were usually in the form of wooden figures with open cavities in their bodies for medicines. The most common place for storage was the belly. The KiKongo word for belly is "mooyo," which also means "life," and is most likely the reasoning behind the placement of the medicines. Other common places for medicines included the head and in pouches surrounding the neck. A nkisi/nkonde figure without medicine is useless and serves no purpose. It is simply a container that gains its power from the medicine.
In most nkondi figures the eyes and medicine pack covers were reflective glass or mirrors, used for divination. The nganga could use the mirrors to look into the world of the ancestors. Some nkondi figures were adorned with feathers. This goes along with the concept of the figures as being "of the above," and associates them with birds of prey.
The creation and use of nkondi figures was also a very important aspect to their success. Banganga often composed the nkondi figures at the edge of the village. The village was thought of as being similar to the human body. The idea that the edge and entrances needed to be protected from evil spirits occurred in both the human body and the village. When composing the minkisi the nganga is often isolated in a hidden camp, away from the rest of the village. After the nkisi was built and the nganga had learned its proper use and the corresponding songs, he returned to the village covered in paint and behaving in a strange manner.
The unusual behavior was to illustrate the ngangas return to the land of the living. Prior to using the nkondi, the nganga recited specific invocations to awaken the nkondi and activate its powers. During their performances, banganga often painted themselves. White circles around the eyes allowed them to see beyond the physical world and see the hidden
sources of evil and illness. White stripes were painted on the participants. Often the nganga was dressed similar to his nkondi. Banganga generally dressed in outfits that were vastly different than normal people. They wore ornate jewelry and often incorporated knots in their clothing. The knots were associated with a way of closing up or sealing of
spiritual forces.
Modern impact
Central African beliefs migrated to the Americas with the slave trade, and a number of the Neo-African religions of the Americas have Kongo elements, most notably Palo Mayombe in Cuba and elsewhere. In their American forms there are often substantial variations from the forms encountered in Africa, but the general logic is quite similar.The nkisi figures brought back to Europe in the nineteenth century in particular caused great interest in emerging trends in modern art, and African themes previously considered primitive or ugly were now viewed as aesthetically interesting. The pieces became influential art circles and many were acquired by art museums. The intentions of the banganga who created minkisi were practical, that is their characteristics were dictated by the need of the object to do the work it was required to do--hence the nails which caused a sensation were never seen as decorative items but as a requirement of awakening the spirit; or the gestures were part of a substantial metaphor of gestures found in Kongo culture.
Recently some modern artists have also been interested in creating nkisi of their own, most notably Renee Stout
Renee Stout
Renée Stout is a contemporary artist known for assemblage artworks dealing with her personal history and African American heritage....
, whose exhibition "Astonishment and Power" at the Smithsonian Institution coupled her own versions of nkisi with a commentary by noted anthropologist Wyatt MacGaffey.