Northern Seven Years' War
Encyclopedia
The Northern Seven Years' War (also known as the Nordic Seven Years' War, the First Northern War or the Seven Years War in Scandinavia) was the war between Kingdom of Sweden and a coalition of Denmark–Norway
, Lübeck and the Polish–Lithuanian union, fought between 1563 and 1570. The war was motivated by the dissatisfaction of King Frederick II of Denmark
with the dissolution of the Kalmar Union
, and the will of King Eric XIV of Sweden
to break Denmark's dominating position. The fighting continued until both armies had been exhausted, and many men died. The resulting Treaty of Stettin was a stalemate, with neither party gaining any new territory.
lasted on and off from 1397 to 1523, until it finally collapsed following the continued Swedish resentment of Danish domination.
A successful rebellion in 1471 led to Swedish victory at the Battle of Brunkeberg
, which established a powerful anti-Union movement under the leadership of the Bonde
–Sture
nobles. In 1520, Christian II of Denmark
reconquered Sweden and took a bloody revenge on the anti-Union faction at the Stockholm Bloodbath
. More than 80 noble men and ladies, including leading citizens of Stockholm
, were executed, but the result severely backfired on Christian II. The violence elicited strong reactions in Sweden for years to come, and the Union was broken by the successful Swedish War of Liberation
from 1521 to 1523. Christian II was condemned by the Pope, and he abdicated
in 1523. The subsequent Danish kings Frederick I
and Christian III
, turned their attention mainly on the Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein and the Count's Feud
civil war, and relations with Sweden were generally peaceful.
In Sweden, the internal power vacuum, combined with the abdication of Christian II, provided the opportunity for Gustav Vasa to consolidate control of Sweden and claim the throne in June 1523, with the support of peasants and the Hanseatic
towns of Lübeck and Danzig
. Under Vasa, the Kalmar Union was finally dissoluted, and Sweden began establishing itself as a rival power of Denmark–Norway. Gustav Vasa's Sweden was in a weak position in 1523, as access to the North Sea
was dominated by the Danish Sound Dues
and limited to a 20 kilometer stretch on the Kattegat
in the vicinity of Älvsborg Fortress
, where modern Gothenburg
was later founded. Furthermore, Denmark controlled the Baltic
, limiting Swedish movement there.
Gustav Vasa took an action which did not bear immediate fruit in the Nordic Seven Years' War, but was to have a lasting impact on Sweden’s fortune; he changed the military structure in Sweden. In 1544 he used the old Scandinavian concept of Uppbåd (levy or the prerogative to call up some fraction of men from each district in an emergency) to establish the first native standing army
in Europe. The men served in standby, remaining at home in peacetime, and being paid by tax concessions, but were required to assemble and drill. This system was later expanded as the Swedish allotment system
. By 1560 when Gustav Vasa died, every ten peasants were required to provide one soldier who must serve anywhere domestic or foreign as required by the king.
After the deaths of Christian III and Gustav Vasa – in 1559 and 1560, respectively, both countries now had young and hawkish monarchs, Eric XIV of Sweden
and Frederick II of Denmark
. Frederick II envisioned the resurrection of the Kalmar Union under Danish leadership, while Eric wanted to finally break the dominating position of Denmark.
In the beginning of his reign, Eric obstructed Danish plans to conquer Estonia
, where both parties were engaged in the Livonian War
. He sought to dominate the Baltic Sea
, while unsuccessfully pressing for Frederick to remove the traditionally Swedish insignia of Three Crowns
from the Danish coat of arms
; a bone of contention since Christian III and Gustav Vasa. In February 1563, Swedish messengers were sent to Hesse
to negotiate Eric's marriage with Christine of Hesse
, but were held back in Copenhagen
. In retaliation, Eric added the insignia of Norway
and Denmark
to his own coat of arms, and refused Danish requests to remove these symbols.
Lübeck, upset over obstacles of trade that Eric had introduced to hinder the Russia
n trade and withdrawn trade privileges, joined Denmark in a war alliance. The Polish–Lithuanian union also joined, desiring control of the Baltic trade. Skirmishes broke out in May 1563, before war was officially declared in August that year.
, on 30 May 1563, the Danish fleet fired on the Swedish navy under Jakob Bagge even though war had not officially been declared. A battle arose that ended with Danish defeat.
German royal emissaries were sent to negotiate a peace, but at the meeting place of Rostock
no Swedes appeared. On 13 August 1563, war was declared by emissaries from Denmark and Lübeck in Stockholm
. That month, Danish king Fredrik II attacked Älvsborg. At the beginning of the war the Danes advanced from Halland
with a 25,000-strong army of professional mercenaries and captured Sweden's gateway to the west, Älvsborg Fortress, after only three days of bombardment and a six-hour assault, on 4 September.
This achieved the Danish aim of cutting off Sweden from the North Sea, blocking the all-important salt
imports. Eric then attacked Halmstad
, without result; the Swedish counterattack was driven back by the professional Danish army. After the king's departure from his army, Charley de Mornays stepped in as the commanding officer and was beaten by the Danish at Mared.
At sea a battle broke out near Öland
on 11 September, whereafter the war took a pause.
On 30 May 1564 a battle broke out
between the Swedish navy and the Danish–Lübeck navy between Gotland
and Öland
. The Swedish navy was under the command of Jakob Bagge, and the Danish–Lübeck navy was under the command of Herluf Trolle
. Bagge was captured and the largest warship of the Baltic, the Mars
(also known as the Makalös) sunk. The Swedish navy retreated to Stockholm leaving a sea blockade in effect. Klas Horn became the new commander and met the Danish fleet at the island Jungfrun north of Öland 14 August. An inconclusive fight left the sea blockade in effect.
Horn attacked the provinces Halland and Skåne in 1565, and made several attempts at Bohuslän
and Uddevalla
. The Danish burned old Lödöse
in the province of Västergötland
. Against the Danish army, Eric led the army himself at first, but then again turned over command to someone else, this time to Nils Boije, who on 28 August 1564 took Varberg
. The Danish army under Daniel Rantzau
beat the Swedish army in the Battle of Axtorna
on 20 October.
At sea the Swedes fared better. Horn—commanding the Swedish navy—pursued a Danish–Lübeck fleet onto the German coast where most of it was destroyed. After this victory Horn steered for Öresund and levied a toll on passing ships. On 4 June 1565, the Battle at Buchow
took place on the Mecklenburg coast, in which the Danish–Lübeck commander Herluf Trolle was mortally wounded. In the Battle of 7 July 1565
, the Swedish navy under Klas Horn defeated a Danish–Lübeck navy under Otto Rud near Bornholm, where Sweden captured the Danish flagship the Jegermesther. This ensured the command of the eastern Baltic to the Swedes that year.
In January 1566 Sweden unsuccessfully laid siege to Bohus Fortress
in Bohuslän. Daniel Rantzau then moved his forces into Västergötland. At sea Klas Horn returned to take toll charges in the Baltic. An indecisive battle at sea outside of Öland occurred on 26 July 1566. On 28 July half the Danish–Lübeck Navy was lost in a storm at sea. Klas Horn was then called to command troops on land, where he died 9 September.
, which was quickly reconquered by a counterattack by forces under command of the Norwegian governor of Trøndelag
. The forces were unwilling to launch a counterattack on Swedish land. In 1564 the Swedes marched under Claude Collart and re-occupied Jemtland, as well as Herjedalen
and Trøndelag, including the city of Trondheim
. Initially welcomed in Trøndelag, their ill treatment of the Trøndelag natives, among others with tax pressure, laid the groundwork for the later resistance to Swedish invasion. Also, Trøndelag was assisted by governor of Bergenhus
Erik Rosenkrantz, who forced 3500 local peasants to assist him and his 50 professional soldiers. The reason was that the Swedes saw Bergenhus as their next target. Although the 400 Swedish soldiers were repelled from Trøndelag, Sweden continued to occupy Jämtland and Härjedalen. These provinces were later regained by Denmark–Norway following the peace process in 1570.
Sweden also launched attacks towards Eastern Norway. In the south-east Sweden captured Båhus Fortress, but lost it in 1566. Another part of the army marched through the valley Østerdalen
in 1567, captured Hamar
and continued towards Oslo
. They reached as far as the Skiensfjord, and torched Skien
at one point. In Oslo, however, citizens torched the city before invaders could seize it. From the south-east, then, more Swedish forces were sent to aid in capturing Akershus Fortress
near Oslo. These forces torched Konghelle
and Sarpsborg
on their way. They were repelled from Oslo by local forces together with men belonging to Erik Rosenkrantz and the King of Denmark and Norway. The Swedes retreated in a north-eastern direction, torching Hamar on their way, destroying Hamar Cathedral
and the bishop's fortified palace Hamarhus
.
and his army occupied it cruelly, the Danish soon reclaimed this though.
Spring time came, and Eric XIV turned insane. This paralyzed the Swedish warfare. The Danish were exhausted and made no serious attacks until October when Rantzau attacked Småland and Östergötland with about 8,500 men. He arrived in November and burned every field and house and destroyed every head of livestock he could. An attempt to cut off his retreat over the Holaveden failed, and in the middle of February 1568 he returned to Halland.
Attempts were made to make peace between the fighting nations during these years. Negotiators who attempted this included dukes of Pomerania
, French messenger Charles Dancay, Emperor Ferdinand I
and Emperor Maximilian II
. The emperors wanted Denmark and Sweden to give back the territories won in Livonia, during the on-going Livonian War
, but Sweden refused to give in for those demands.
In 1568, the Swedish duke John
staged a successful coup d'etat
against his brother, King Eric. Enthroned as king with the name John III, he began negotiations with Denmark, and on 18 November the same year this led to a draft peace agreement in Roskilde. This however was turned down by the Swedes. In 1569, war stirred again. The Danes attacked Varberg, reclaiming it, on 13 November. The Swedes on the other hand now had great success in Skåne.
and peace was finally reached on 13 December 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin. The Swedish king withdrew the claims to Norway, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and Gotland, while the Danes withdrew their claims to Sweden. The Baltic Sea was declared sovereign Danish. In addition, the Kalmar Union
was declared dissolved. The Swedes ransomed Älvsborg with 150,000 riksdaler and had to hand back captured warships. The disputes concerning the Three Crowns insignia was unsolved and source for future conflicts.
Perhaps the most significant consequence of this war was initiation of a standing Swedish army. This war, followed by a virtually continuous involvement of Sweden over the next century in other wars, produced a military capability which made Sweden, for a period, the greatest military power in northern Europe.
This war, with its extreme destruction and wanton civilian casualties strengthened the hatred between Swedes and Danes, while polarizing the until-then ambivalent Norwegian opinion to one of fear and resistance to Sweden. Nonetheless, the war was followed by a forty-year period of peace. The invasion routes of Norway also presaged the attacks on Norway in the next century and defined Norwegian defensive policy.
Denmark–Norway
Denmark–Norway is the historiographical name for a former political entity consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, including the originally Norwegian dependencies of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands...
, Lübeck and the Polish–Lithuanian union, fought between 1563 and 1570. The war was motivated by the dissatisfaction of King Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death.-King of Denmark:Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg. Frederick II stands as the typical renaissance ruler of Denmark. Unlike his father, he...
with the dissolution of the Kalmar Union
Kalmar Union
The Kalmar Union is a historiographical term meaning a series of personal unions that united the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway , and Sweden under a single monarch, though intermittently and with a population...
, and the will of King Eric XIV of Sweden
Eric XIV of Sweden
-Family and descendants:Eric XIV had several relationships before his marriage. With Agda Persdotter he had four daughters:#Margareta Eriksdotter , married 1592 to Olov Simonsson, vicar of Horn....
to break Denmark's dominating position. The fighting continued until both armies had been exhausted, and many men died. The resulting Treaty of Stettin was a stalemate, with neither party gaining any new territory.
Context
The Danish-ruled Nordic Kalmar UnionKalmar Union
The Kalmar Union is a historiographical term meaning a series of personal unions that united the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway , and Sweden under a single monarch, though intermittently and with a population...
lasted on and off from 1397 to 1523, until it finally collapsed following the continued Swedish resentment of Danish domination.
A successful rebellion in 1471 led to Swedish victory at the Battle of Brunkeberg
Battle of Brunkeberg
The Battle of Brunkeberg was fought on October 10, 1471 between the Swedish regent Sten Sture the Elder and forces led by Danish king Christian I.-Background:...
, which established a powerful anti-Union movement under the leadership of the Bonde
Bonde
Bonde is a Swedish noble family.Prominent members include:* Karl Knutsson Bonde , King Charles VIII of Sweden* Gustaf Bonde , Swedish statesman...
–Sture
Sture
Sture was the name of two influential families in Sweden from the late 15th century to the early 16th century. One member of one of these families and two members of the other served as Regents of Sweden in the Kalmar Union between 1470 and 1520...
nobles. In 1520, Christian II of Denmark
Christian II of Denmark
Christian II was King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden , during the Kalmar Union.-Background:...
reconquered Sweden and took a bloody revenge on the anti-Union faction at the Stockholm Bloodbath
Stockholm Bloodbath
The Stockholm Bloodbath, or the Stockholm Massacre , took place as the result of a successful invasion of Sweden by Danish forces under the command of King Christian II...
. More than 80 noble men and ladies, including leading citizens of Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
, were executed, but the result severely backfired on Christian II. The violence elicited strong reactions in Sweden for years to come, and the Union was broken by the successful Swedish War of Liberation
Swedish War of Liberation
The Swedish War of Liberation , , was a civil war in which the Swedish nobleman Gustav Vasa successfully deposed the Danish king Christian II as regent of the Kalmar Union in Sweden. The war started in January 1521 when Gustav Vasa was appointed "hövitsman" over Dalarna. After Gustav Vasa sacked...
from 1521 to 1523. Christian II was condemned by the Pope, and he abdicated
Abdication
Abdication occurs when a monarch, such as a king or emperor, renounces his office.-Terminology:The word abdication comes derives from the Latin abdicatio. meaning to disown or renounce...
in 1523. The subsequent Danish kings Frederick I
Frederick I of Denmark
Frederick I of Denmark and Norway was the King of Denmark and Norway. The name is also spelled Friedrich in German, Frederik in Danish, and Fredrik in Swedish and Norwegian...
and Christian III
Christian III of Denmark
Christian III reigned as king of Denmark and Norway. He was the eldest son of King Frederick I and Anna of Brandenburg.-Childhood:...
, turned their attention mainly on the Reformation in Denmark–Norway and Holstein and the Count's Feud
Count's Feud
The Count's Feud , also called the Count's War, was a civil war that raged in Denmark in 1534–36 and brought about the Reformation in Denmark...
civil war, and relations with Sweden were generally peaceful.
In Sweden, the internal power vacuum, combined with the abdication of Christian II, provided the opportunity for Gustav Vasa to consolidate control of Sweden and claim the throne in June 1523, with the support of peasants and the Hanseatic
Hanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was an economic alliance of trading cities and their merchant guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe...
towns of Lübeck and Danzig
Gdansk
Gdańsk is a Polish city on the Baltic coast, at the centre of the country's fourth-largest metropolitan area.The city lies on the southern edge of Gdańsk Bay , in a conurbation with the city of Gdynia, spa town of Sopot, and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the...
. Under Vasa, the Kalmar Union was finally dissoluted, and Sweden began establishing itself as a rival power of Denmark–Norway. Gustav Vasa's Sweden was in a weak position in 1523, as access to the North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
was dominated by the Danish Sound Dues
Sound Dues
The Sound Dues were a toll on the use of the Sound which constituted up to two thirds of Denmark's state income in the 16th and 17th centuries...
and limited to a 20 kilometer stretch on the Kattegat
Kattegat
The Kattegat , or Kattegatt is a sea area bounded by the Jutland peninsula and the Straits islands of Denmark on the west and south, and the provinces of Västergötland, Scania, Halland and Bohuslän in Sweden on the east. The Baltic Sea drains into the Kattegat through the Øresund and the Danish...
in the vicinity of Älvsborg Fortress
Älvsborg Fortress
Älvsborg, also Elfsborg Fortress, is a sea fortress located in today's Gothenburg , Sweden. Situated on the mouth of the Göta Älv river, it served to protect Sweden's access to the Atlantic Ocean and the nearby settlement of today's Gothenburg and its four predecessors. The fortress was relocated...
, where modern Gothenburg
Gothenburg
Gothenburg is the second-largest city in Sweden and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries. Situated on the west coast of Sweden, the city proper has a population of 519,399, with 549,839 in the urban area and total of 937,015 inhabitants in the metropolitan area...
was later founded. Furthermore, Denmark controlled the Baltic
Baltic region
The terms Baltic region, Baltic Rim countries, and Baltic Rim refer to slightly different combinations of countries in the general area surrounding the Baltic Sea.- Etymology :...
, limiting Swedish movement there.
Gustav Vasa took an action which did not bear immediate fruit in the Nordic Seven Years' War, but was to have a lasting impact on Sweden’s fortune; he changed the military structure in Sweden. In 1544 he used the old Scandinavian concept of Uppbåd (levy or the prerogative to call up some fraction of men from each district in an emergency) to establish the first native standing army
Standing army
A standing army is a professional permanent army. It is composed of full-time career soldiers and is not disbanded during times of peace. It differs from army reserves, who are activated only during wars or natural disasters...
in Europe. The men served in standby, remaining at home in peacetime, and being paid by tax concessions, but were required to assemble and drill. This system was later expanded as the Swedish allotment system
Swedish allotment system
The allotment system was a system used in Sweden for keeping a trained army at all times. This system came into use in around 1640, and was replaced in the early 1900s by the Swedish Armed Forces conscription system...
. By 1560 when Gustav Vasa died, every ten peasants were required to provide one soldier who must serve anywhere domestic or foreign as required by the king.
Casus belli
Eric XIV of Sweden
-Family and descendants:Eric XIV had several relationships before his marriage. With Agda Persdotter he had four daughters:#Margareta Eriksdotter , married 1592 to Olov Simonsson, vicar of Horn....
and Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death.-King of Denmark:Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg. Frederick II stands as the typical renaissance ruler of Denmark. Unlike his father, he...
. Frederick II envisioned the resurrection of the Kalmar Union under Danish leadership, while Eric wanted to finally break the dominating position of Denmark.
In the beginning of his reign, Eric obstructed Danish plans to conquer Estonia
Swedish Estonia
The Duchy of Estonia , also known as Swedish Estonia, was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1561 until 1721, when it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, following its capitulation in the Great Northern War. The dominion arose when the northern parts of present-day Estonia were united...
, where both parties were engaged in the Livonian War
Livonian War
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
. He sought to dominate the Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
, while unsuccessfully pressing for Frederick to remove the traditionally Swedish insignia of Three Crowns
Three Crowns
Three Crowns is a national emblem of Sweden, present in the Coat of Arms of the Realm of Sweden, and composed by three yellow or gilded coronets ordered two above and one below, placed on a blue background....
from the Danish coat of arms
Coat of arms
A coat of arms is a unique heraldic design on a shield or escutcheon or on a surcoat or tabard used to cover and protect armour and to identify the wearer. Thus the term is often stated as "coat-armour", because it was anciently displayed on the front of a coat of cloth...
; a bone of contention since Christian III and Gustav Vasa. In February 1563, Swedish messengers were sent to Hesse
Landgraviate of Hesse
The Landgraviate of Hesse was a Landgraviate of the Holy Roman Empire. It existed as a unity from 1264 to 1567, when it was divided between the sons of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse.-History:...
to negotiate Eric's marriage with Christine of Hesse
Christine of Hesse
Christine of Hesse-Kassel was Duchess consort of Holstein-Gottorp as the spouse of Duke Adolf of Holstein-Gottorp. She exerted some political influence as a widow in 1586.- Biography :...
, but were held back in Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...
. In retaliation, Eric added the insignia of Norway
Coat of arms of Norway
The coat of arms of Norway is a crowned, golden lion rampant holding an axe with an argent blade, on a crowned, triangular and red escutcheon. Its elements originate from personal insignias for the royal house in the High Middle Ages, thus being among the oldest in Europe...
and Denmark
Coat of arms of Denmark
The royal coat of arms is more complex. The shield is quartered by a silver cross fimbriated in red, derived from the Danish flag, the Dannebrog. The first and fourth quarters represent Denmark by three crowned lions passant accompanied by nine hearts; the second quarter contains two lions passant...
to his own coat of arms, and refused Danish requests to remove these symbols.
Lübeck, upset over obstacles of trade that Eric had introduced to hinder the Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n trade and withdrawn trade privileges, joined Denmark in a war alliance. The Polish–Lithuanian union also joined, desiring control of the Baltic trade. Skirmishes broke out in May 1563, before war was officially declared in August that year.
Initial phase
In May, the first movements of the war started. A Danish fleet under Jakob Brockenhuus sailed towards the Baltic. At BornholmBornholm
Bornholm is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea located to the east of the rest of Denmark, the south of Sweden, and the north of Poland. The main industries on the island include fishing, arts and crafts like glass making and pottery using locally worked clay, and dairy farming. Tourism is...
, on 30 May 1563, the Danish fleet fired on the Swedish navy under Jakob Bagge even though war had not officially been declared. A battle arose that ended with Danish defeat.
German royal emissaries were sent to negotiate a peace, but at the meeting place of Rostock
Rostock
Rostock -Early history:In the 11th century Polabian Slavs founded a settlement at the Warnow river called Roztoc ; the name Rostock is derived from that designation. The Danish king Valdemar I set the town aflame in 1161.Afterwards the place was settled by German traders...
no Swedes appeared. On 13 August 1563, war was declared by emissaries from Denmark and Lübeck in Stockholm
Stockholm
Stockholm is the capital and the largest city of Sweden and constitutes the most populated urban area in Scandinavia. Stockholm is the most populous city in Sweden, with a population of 851,155 in the municipality , 1.37 million in the urban area , and around 2.1 million in the metropolitan area...
. That month, Danish king Fredrik II attacked Älvsborg. At the beginning of the war the Danes advanced from Halland
Halland
' is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden , on the western coast of Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Småland, Scania and the sea of Kattegat.-Administration:...
with a 25,000-strong army of professional mercenaries and captured Sweden's gateway to the west, Älvsborg Fortress, after only three days of bombardment and a six-hour assault, on 4 September.
This achieved the Danish aim of cutting off Sweden from the North Sea, blocking the all-important salt
Salt
In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral...
imports. Eric then attacked Halmstad
Halmstad
Halmstad is a port, university, industrial and recreational city at the mouth of Nissan in the province of Halland on the Swedish west coast. Halmstad is the seat of Halmstad Municipality and the capital of Halland County...
, without result; the Swedish counterattack was driven back by the professional Danish army. After the king's departure from his army, Charley de Mornays stepped in as the commanding officer and was beaten by the Danish at Mared.
At sea a battle broke out near Öland
Öland
' is the second largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional provinces of Sweden. Öland has an area of 1,342 km² and is located in the Baltic Sea just off the coast of Småland. The island has 25,000 inhabitants, but during Swedish Midsummer it is visited by up to 500,000 people...
on 11 September, whereafter the war took a pause.
South
Action of 30 May 1564
This battle took place on 30–31 May 1564 between the islands of Gotland and Öland, between a fleet of Allied ships, the Danes under Herluf Trolle and the Lübeckers under , and a Swedish fleet of 23 or more ships under . It was an Allied victory....
between the Swedish navy and the Danish–Lübeck navy between Gotland
Gotland
Gotland is a county, province, municipality and diocese of Sweden; it is Sweden's largest island and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. At 3,140 square kilometers in area, the region makes up less than one percent of Sweden's total land area...
and Öland
Öland
' is the second largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional provinces of Sweden. Öland has an area of 1,342 km² and is located in the Baltic Sea just off the coast of Småland. The island has 25,000 inhabitants, but during Swedish Midsummer it is visited by up to 500,000 people...
. The Swedish navy was under the command of Jakob Bagge, and the Danish–Lübeck navy was under the command of Herluf Trolle
Herluf Trolle
Herluf Trolle was a Danish naval hero, born at Lillö, Scania.- Early life :Herluf Trolle was born of the Trolle, a Swedish-originated family of high nobility, was son of Kirsten Herlufsdatter Skave and sir Joachim Arvidsen Trolle, Lord of Lilloe; thus grandson of justiciar Arvid Trolle, Lord of...
. Bagge was captured and the largest warship of the Baltic, the Mars
Mars (ship)
Mars, also known as Makalös was a Swedish warship that was built between 1563 and 1564. It was the leading ship of king Eric XIV of Sweden's fleet, and at 48 meters and equipped with 107 guns it was one of the largest warships of the time, even larger than the famous Swedish ship Vasa...
(also known as the Makalös) sunk. The Swedish navy retreated to Stockholm leaving a sea blockade in effect. Klas Horn became the new commander and met the Danish fleet at the island Jungfrun north of Öland 14 August. An inconclusive fight left the sea blockade in effect.
Horn attacked the provinces Halland and Skåne in 1565, and made several attempts at Bohuslän
Bohuslän
' is a Swedish traditional province, or landskap, situated in Götaland on the northernmost part of the country's west coast. It is bordered by Dalsland to the northeast, Västergötland to the southeast, the Skagerrak arm of the North Sea to the west, and the county of Østfold in Norway to the north...
and Uddevalla
Uddevalla
Uddevalla is a city and the seat of Uddevalla Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden with 30,513 inhabitants in 2005.It is located at the bay Byfjorden, of the south-eastern part of the sea known as Skagerrak...
. The Danish burned old Lödöse
Lödöse
Lödöse is a locality situated in Lilla Edet Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden. It had 1,265 inhabitants in 2005...
in the province of Västergötland
Västergötland
', English exonym: West Gothland, is one of the 25 traditional non-administrative provinces of Sweden , situated in the southwest of Sweden. In older English literature one may also encounter the Latinized version Westrogothia....
. Against the Danish army, Eric led the army himself at first, but then again turned over command to someone else, this time to Nils Boije, who on 28 August 1564 took Varberg
Varberg
Varberg is a locality and the seat of Varberg Municipality, Halland County, Sweden with 26,041 inhabitants in 2005.Varberg and all of Halland are well known for their 'typical west coast' sandy beaches. In Varberg the coast changes from wide sandy beaches to rocky terrain that continues north into...
. The Danish army under Daniel Rantzau
Daniel Rantzau
Daniel Rantzau was a Danish-German general who was known for his leadership in the Northern Seven Years' War. A distant relative of Johan Rantzau, Daniel Rantzau was raised in Holstein, and received a solid academic education but preferred a military career...
beat the Swedish army in the Battle of Axtorna
Battle of Axtorna
The Battle of Axtorna was fought October 20, 1565 at Axtorna, a little village today in Falkenberg Municipality, Halland County in western Sweden....
on 20 October.
At sea the Swedes fared better. Horn—commanding the Swedish navy—pursued a Danish–Lübeck fleet onto the German coast where most of it was destroyed. After this victory Horn steered for Öresund and levied a toll on passing ships. On 4 June 1565, the Battle at Buchow
Action of 4 June 1565
This battle took place on 4 June 1565 between an Allied fleet of 33 Danish and Lübecker ships, under Trolle, and a Swedish fleet of perhaps 49 ships, under . Afterward, the Danes retired to Køge Bay, south of Copenhagen, where Trolle died of his wounds on 25 June...
took place on the Mecklenburg coast, in which the Danish–Lübeck commander Herluf Trolle was mortally wounded. In the Battle of 7 July 1565
Action of 7 July 1565
This battle in the Northern Seven Years' War took place on 7 July 1565 and was a victory for a Swedish fleet of 49 ships, under Klas Horn, over a combined Danish and Lübecker fleet of 36 ships, under Otto Rud....
, the Swedish navy under Klas Horn defeated a Danish–Lübeck navy under Otto Rud near Bornholm, where Sweden captured the Danish flagship the Jegermesther. This ensured the command of the eastern Baltic to the Swedes that year.
In January 1566 Sweden unsuccessfully laid siege to Bohus Fortress
Bohus Fortress
Bohus Fortress lies along the old Norwegian - Swedish border in Kungälv, Bohuslän, Sweden, north east from Hisingen where the Göta river splits into two branches...
in Bohuslän. Daniel Rantzau then moved his forces into Västergötland. At sea Klas Horn returned to take toll charges in the Baltic. An indecisive battle at sea outside of Öland occurred on 26 July 1566. On 28 July half the Danish–Lübeck Navy was lost in a storm at sea. Klas Horn was then called to command troops on land, where he died 9 September.
North
Sweden occupied the undefended Norwegian province of JemtlandJämtland
Jämtland or Jamtland is a historical province or landskap in the center of Sweden in northern Europe. It borders to Härjedalen and Medelpad in the south, Ångermanland in the east, Lapland in the north and Trøndelag and Norway in the west...
, which was quickly reconquered by a counterattack by forces under command of the Norwegian governor of Trøndelag
Trøndelag
Trøndelag is the name of a geographical region in the central part of Norway, consisting of the two counties Nord-Trøndelag and Sør-Trøndelag. The region is, together with Møre og Romsdal, part of a larger...
. The forces were unwilling to launch a counterattack on Swedish land. In 1564 the Swedes marched under Claude Collart and re-occupied Jemtland, as well as Herjedalen
Härjedalen
' is a historical province or landskap in the centre of Sweden. It borders the country of Norway as well as the provinces of Dalarna, Hälsingland, Medelpad, and Jämtland...
and Trøndelag, including the city of Trondheim
Trondheim
Trondheim , historically, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. With a population of 173,486, it is the third most populous municipality and city in the country, although the fourth largest metropolitan area. It is the administrative centre of...
. Initially welcomed in Trøndelag, their ill treatment of the Trøndelag natives, among others with tax pressure, laid the groundwork for the later resistance to Swedish invasion. Also, Trøndelag was assisted by governor of Bergenhus
Bergenhus
Bergenhus is a borough of the city of Bergen, Norway.-Location:Named after the historic Bergenhus Fortress, Bergenhus makes up the city centre and the neighborhoods immediately surrounding it, including Sandviken and Kalfaret, as well as the mountains to the north and east of the city centre...
Erik Rosenkrantz, who forced 3500 local peasants to assist him and his 50 professional soldiers. The reason was that the Swedes saw Bergenhus as their next target. Although the 400 Swedish soldiers were repelled from Trøndelag, Sweden continued to occupy Jämtland and Härjedalen. These provinces were later regained by Denmark–Norway following the peace process in 1570.
Sweden also launched attacks towards Eastern Norway. In the south-east Sweden captured Båhus Fortress, but lost it in 1566. Another part of the army marched through the valley Østerdalen
Østerdalen
Østerdalen is a valley and traditional district in Hedmark County, in Eastern Norway. It consisting of the municipalities Rendalen, Alvdal, Folldal,Tynset, Tolga and Os in the north, Elverum, Stor-Elvdal, Engerdal, Trysil and Åmot in the south.-Geography:...
in 1567, captured Hamar
Hamar
is a town and municipality in Hedmark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Hedmarken. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Hamar. The municipality of Hamar was separated from Vang as a town and municipality of its own in 1849...
and continued towards Oslo
Oslo
Oslo is a municipality, as well as the capital and most populous city in Norway. As a municipality , it was established on 1 January 1838. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III of Norway, the city was largely destroyed by fire in 1624. The city was moved under the reign of Denmark–Norway's King...
. They reached as far as the Skiensfjord, and torched Skien
Skien
' is a city and municipality in Telemark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Grenland. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Skien. Skien is also the administrative centre of Telemark county....
at one point. In Oslo, however, citizens torched the city before invaders could seize it. From the south-east, then, more Swedish forces were sent to aid in capturing Akershus Fortress
Akershus Fortress
Akershus Fortress or Akershus Castle is a medieval castle that was built to protect Oslo, the capital of Norway. It has also been used as a prison.- Construction :...
near Oslo. These forces torched Konghelle
Kungahälla
Kungahälla was a medieval Norwegian settlement in southern Bohuslän at a site which is presently located in Kungälv Municipality in Västra Götaland County in Sweden...
and Sarpsborg
Sarpsborg
is a city and municipality in Østfold county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Sarpsborg.Sarpsborg is part of the fifth largest urban area in Norway when paired with neighbouring Fredrikstad...
on their way. They were repelled from Oslo by local forces together with men belonging to Erik Rosenkrantz and the King of Denmark and Norway. The Swedes retreated in a north-eastern direction, torching Hamar on their way, destroying Hamar Cathedral
Hamar cathedral
For the current cathedral in Hamar, see Hamar cathedral.Hamar Cathedral was the see of the Ancient Diocese of Hamar. The diocese at Hamar had included much of the counties of Hedmark, Oppland, and Buskerud....
and the bishop's fortified palace Hamarhus
Hamarhus
Hamarhus castle, the fortified palace of the bishop, in Hamar was destroyed in 1570 by the Swedish armies during the Nordic Seven Years' War.-References:* History of the Norwegian People by Knut Gjerset, The MacMillan Company, 1915, Volumes II...
.
Later phase
The Danish mercenary army was superior to the Swedish peasant army in all but one respect; the professional army would not fight until their pay was current. Because only a fraction of the army would march, Denmark had to give up the plan to take the fortress of Kalmar and settle for an attack on Stockholm instead. In August, Eric attacked BlekingeBlekinge
' is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden , situated in the south of the country. It borders Småland, Scania and the Baltic Sea.The name "Blekinge" comes from the adjective bleke, which corresponds to the nautical term for "dead calm"....
and his army occupied it cruelly, the Danish soon reclaimed this though.
Spring time came, and Eric XIV turned insane. This paralyzed the Swedish warfare. The Danish were exhausted and made no serious attacks until October when Rantzau attacked Småland and Östergötland with about 8,500 men. He arrived in November and burned every field and house and destroyed every head of livestock he could. An attempt to cut off his retreat over the Holaveden failed, and in the middle of February 1568 he returned to Halland.
Attempts were made to make peace between the fighting nations during these years. Negotiators who attempted this included dukes of Pomerania
Pomerania
Pomerania is a historical region on the south shore of the Baltic Sea. Divided between Germany and Poland, it stretches roughly from the Recknitz River near Stralsund in the West, via the Oder River delta near Szczecin, to the mouth of the Vistula River near Gdańsk in the East...
, French messenger Charles Dancay, Emperor Ferdinand I
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand I was Holy Roman Emperor from 1558 and king of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526 until his death. Before his accession, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.The key events during his reign were the contest...
and Emperor Maximilian II
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian II was king of Bohemia and king of the Romans from 1562, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1563, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from 1564 until his death...
. The emperors wanted Denmark and Sweden to give back the territories won in Livonia, during the on-going Livonian War
Livonian War
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
, but Sweden refused to give in for those demands.
John III of Sweden
-Family:John married his first wife, Catherine Jagellonica of Poland , house of Jagiello, in Vilnius on 4 October 1562. In Sweden, she is known as Katarina Jagellonica. She was the sister of king Sigismund II Augustus of Poland...
staged a successful coup d'etat
Coup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
against his brother, King Eric. Enthroned as king with the name John III, he began negotiations with Denmark, and on 18 November the same year this led to a draft peace agreement in Roskilde. This however was turned down by the Swedes. In 1569, war stirred again. The Danes attacked Varberg, reclaiming it, on 13 November. The Swedes on the other hand now had great success in Skåne.
Peace negotiations and consequences
At this point, both armies were exhausted. This led to further negotiations toward peace. In September 1570 a peace negotiations meeting began in StettinSzczecin
Szczecin , is the capital city of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. It is the country's seventh-largest city and the largest seaport in Poland on the Baltic Sea. As of June 2009 the population was 406,427....
and peace was finally reached on 13 December 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin. The Swedish king withdrew the claims to Norway, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge and Gotland, while the Danes withdrew their claims to Sweden. The Baltic Sea was declared sovereign Danish. In addition, the Kalmar Union
Kalmar Union
The Kalmar Union is a historiographical term meaning a series of personal unions that united the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway , and Sweden under a single monarch, though intermittently and with a population...
was declared dissolved. The Swedes ransomed Älvsborg with 150,000 riksdaler and had to hand back captured warships. The disputes concerning the Three Crowns insignia was unsolved and source for future conflicts.
Perhaps the most significant consequence of this war was initiation of a standing Swedish army. This war, followed by a virtually continuous involvement of Sweden over the next century in other wars, produced a military capability which made Sweden, for a period, the greatest military power in northern Europe.
This war, with its extreme destruction and wanton civilian casualties strengthened the hatred between Swedes and Danes, while polarizing the until-then ambivalent Norwegian opinion to one of fear and resistance to Sweden. Nonetheless, the war was followed by a forty-year period of peace. The invasion routes of Norway also presaged the attacks on Norway in the next century and defined Norwegian defensive policy.
See also
- Livonian WarLivonian WarThe Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
– contemporary struggle for hegemony on the eastern Baltic coast (1558–1583)
Sources
- Eriksson, Bo (2007). Lützen 1632. Norstedts Pocket, Stockholm. ISBN 978-91-7263-790-0. In Swedish.
Further reading
- Anderson, R.C. (1910). Naval Battles in the Baltic 1553-1850.
- Andersson, Ingvar (1956). A History of Sweden. Frederick A. Praeger.
- Frost, Robert I. (2000). The Northern Wars, 1558-1721. Longman, Harlow. ISBN 0-582-06429-5.
- Gjerset, Knut (1915). History of the Norwegian People. The MacMillan Company. Volumes I & II.
- Lisk, Jill (1967). The Struggle for Supremacy in the Baltic: 1600-1725. Funk & Wagnalls, New York.
- Mathisen, Trygve (1952). Fra Bondeoppbud til Legdshær. Guldendal Norsk Forlag.
- Scott, Franklin D. (1988). Sweden - The Nation's History. Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-8093-1489-4.
- Stagg, Frank N. (1956). East Norway and its Frontier. George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.
- Stagg, Frank N. (1953). The Heart of Norway. George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.
- Stiles, Andrina (1992). Sweden and the Baltic, 1523 - 1721. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-54644-1.