Livonian War
Encyclopedia
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia
and Latvia
when the Tsardom of Russia
faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway
, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union (later Commonwealth) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
and the Kingdom of Poland
.
During the period 1558–1578, Russia dominated the region with early military successes at Dorpat
(Tartu) and Narva
. Russian dissolution of the Livonian Confederation
brought Poland–Lithuania into the conflict while Sweden and Denmark both intervened between 1559 and 1561. Swedish Estonia
was established despite constant invasion from Russia and Frederick II of Denmark
bought the old Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek, which he placed under the control of his brother Magnus of Holstein. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian vassal state
Kingdom of Livonia
, which nominally existed until Magnus' defection in 1576.
In 1576, Stefan Batory
became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at the Battle of Wenden. This was followed by an extended campaign through Russia culminating in the long and difficult siege of Pskov
. Under the 1582 Truce of Jam Zapolski, which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed the Truce of Plussa with Sweden gaining most of Ingria
and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.
. Its territories consisted of the Livonian branch
of the Teutonic Order, the prince-bishoprics of Dorpat
, Ösel–Wiek, as well as Courland
, the Archbishopric of Riga and the city of Riga
. Together with Riga, the cities of Dorpat and Reval (Tallinn), along with the knightly estates, enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently. The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known as landtag
s. As well as a divided political administration, there were also persistent rivalries between the archbishop of Riga and the landmeister of the Order for hegemony.The Order was led by a hochmeister
, an office that since 1525 had been executed by the deutschmeister responsible for the bailiwicks in the Holy Roman Empire
; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle of gebietigers headed by a landmeister elected from amongst the membership A schism had existed within the Order since the Reformation
had spread to Livonia in the 1520s, although the transformation of the country into a Lutheran
region was a gradual process, resisted by part of the Order which to a varying degree remained sympathetic to Roman Catholicism
. As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies. Robert I. Frost
notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."
The Order's landmeister and gebietiger, as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class. Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles. Wilhelm von Brandenburg was appointed as archbishop of Riga and Christoph von Mecklenburg as his coadjutor, with the help of his brother Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg–Ansbach, the former Prussian hochmeister who had secularised
the southern Teutonic Order state and in 1525 established himself as duke in Prussia. Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model. At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("Rekuperation") in Prussia, opposed secularization and creation of a hereditary duchy.
had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperous Baltic Sea
trade. While still involved and with increasing sales, it now shared the market with Western European mercenary fleets, most notably from the Dutch
Seventeen Provinces
. The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships, and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade, its Livonian members Riga
, Reval and trading partner Narva
were left without suitable protection. The Danish
navy, the most powerful in the Baltic Sea, controlled the entrance to the Baltic Sea
, collected requisite tolls
and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of Bornholm
and Gotland
.
A long bar of Danish territories in the south and her lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limited Sweden's access to the Baltic trade. Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow Gulf of Finland
. Before the Livonian war, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian Tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557, which culminated in the 1557 Treaty of Novgorod
.
Through its absorption of the principalities of Novgorod
(1478) and Pskov (1510), the Tsardom of Russia
had become Livonia's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing the khanate
s of Kazan
(1552) and Astrakhan
(1556). The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. The new Ivangorod
port built by Tsar Ivan on the eastern shore of the Narva River
in 1550 was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters. Thereafter the Tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6,000 mark
s to keep the Bishopric of Dorpat
, based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state. The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to Ivan by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations. Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary. He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the Caspian Sea
because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.
The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus
was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations. Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes. Therefore Sigismund supported his cousin Wilhelm von Brandenburg, archbishop of Riga, in his conflicts with Wilhelm von Fürstenberg, the Livonian Order's landmeister. Sigismund hoped that Livonia, just like the Duchy of Prussia under Duke Albert, would become a vassal state of Poland–Lithuania. With weak support in Livonia, von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies. Among his few Livonian supporters was landmarschall Jasper von Munster, with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert. However, Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action, fearing that it would leave the Kiev Voivodeship exposed to a pending Russian attack. When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan, he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds of Kokenhusen and Ronneburg
. Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania, but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained at Adsel and Treiden
. This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by the Pomeranian dukes
, the Danish King, Emperor Ferdinand I
and the estates of the Holy Roman Empire
. A cross-party meeting in Lübeck
to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1 April 1557, but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys. Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by the landmeister's son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80,000. He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp in Pozvol in September 1557. There they signed the Treaty of Pozvol
, which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.
's approach to the Polish–Lithuanian union for protection under the Treaty of Pozvol
as casus belli
. - in 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen-year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland–Lithuania. In January 1558, Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia. The Russians were seen by local peasants as liberators from the German control of Livonia. Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat in May, Narva in July, says Narva in May and Dorpat in July. and laid siege to Reval. Reinforced by 1,200 landsknecht
e, 100 gunners and ammunition from Germany, Livonian forces successfully retook Wesenberg
(Rakvere) along with a number of other fortresses. Although the Germans raided Russian territory, Dorpat, Narva and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands. The initial Russian advance was led by the Khan of Kasimov
, with two other Tartar princes at the head of a force that included Russian boiars, Tartar and pomest'e cavalry as well as cossack
s, who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers. Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560. In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia. A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the Russo-Crimean Wars
.
Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor Ferdinand I
, then turned to Poland–Lithuania. Landmeister von Fürstenburg fled to Poland–Lithuania to be replaced by Gotthard Kettler
. In June 1559, the estates of Livonia came under Polish–Lithuanian protection through the first Treaty of Vilnius
(Vilna). The Polish sejm
refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
. In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.
Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns, with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support. The Tsar's forces took important fortresses like Fellin (Viljandi), yet lacked the means to gain the major cities of Riga
, Reval or Pernau. The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Ērģeme
in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.
Eric XIV, the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help. The weakened Livonian Order
was dissolved by the second Treaty of Vilnius
in 1561. Its lands were secularised as the Duchy of Livonia
and Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism. Included in the treaty was the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the Augsburg Confession
, the Indygenat
, and continuation of the traditional German administration. The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.
Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed growing Polish–Lithuanian union, and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV. The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops. Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.
the right to nominate the bishop of Ösel–Wiek, an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30,000 thaler
s. Frederick II nominated his brother, Duke Magnus of Holstein as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region. Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing the Bishopric of Courland
without Frederick's consent and trying to expand into Harrien
–Wierland
(Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.
In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and the noble corporations
of Harrien–Wierland and Jerwen
(Järva) yielded to Sweden to form the Duchy of Estonia
. Reval, similarly, accepted Swedish rule. Denmark dominated the Baltic, and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic. Doing so would help Sweden control the West's trade with Russia. This helped to precipitate the Northern Seven Years' War
since in 1561, Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval, claiming historical rights relating to Danish Estonia
. When Erik XIV's forces seized Pernau in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.
Sigismund maintained close relations with Erik XIV's brother, John, Duke of Finland
(later John III) and in October 1562, John married Sigismund's sister, Catherine, thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV. While Erik XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000 dalers
and received seven Livonian castles as security. This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Erik XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and Lübeck
against Erik XIV in October the same year.
. While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting, a period of low-intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified. Denmark, Sweden and to some extent Poland–Lithuania were occupied with the Nordic Seven Years' War (1563–1570) taking place in the Western Baltic, but Livonia remained strategically important. In 1562, Denmark and Russia concluded the Treaty of Mozhaysk
, respecting each other's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations. In 1564, Sweden and Russia concluded a seven-years truce. Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs of mental disorder with Ivan IV and turning against part of the Tsardom's nobility and people with the oprichina that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.
and, after a series of border clashes, took Polotsk in 1563. Lithuanian victories came at the Battle of Ula
in 1564 and at Czasniki (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania. The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection of Andrey Kurbsky
, led Ivan IV to move his capital to the Alexandrov Kremlin
while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his oprichniki.
A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566. Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia, with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area. However, this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats, who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia, including Riga, through the ceding of Courland
in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian–Russian border. The transfer of Riga, and the surrounding entrance to the River Dvina, troubled the Lithuanians, since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it. Ivan expanded his demands in July, calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat and Narva. No agreement was forthcoming and a ten-day break was taken in negotiations, during which time various Russian meetings were held (including the zemsky sobor
, the Assembly of the Land) to discuss the issues at stake. Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (it not yet having been conquered) while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the ambassadors' return to Lithuania.
In 1569, the Treaty of Lublin unified Poland and Lithuania into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Duchy of Livonia
, tied to Lithuania in real union
since the Union of Grodno
in 1566, came under Polish–Lithuanian joint sovereignty. In June 1570 a three-year truce was signed with Russia. Sigimund II, the Commonwealth's first King, died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the first free election in Polish history. Some Lithuanian nobles, in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy, proposed a Russian candidate. Ivan, however, demanded the return of Kiev
, an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son, Fedor, as King. The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose Henry of Valois (Henryk Walezy), brother of King Charles IX of France
.
, whereby Russia recognised Sweden's right to Reval and other castles, and Sweden accepted Russia's patrimony over the rest of Livonia. A seven-year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565. Eric XIV of Sweden
was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the Sture Murders
(Sturemorden) of 1567, and was replaced by his half-brother John III
. Both Russia and Sweden had other problems, and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia. Ivan IV had requested the return of John's wife, Catherine Jagellonica to Russia, supposedly afraid that John would die while incarcerated by his brother. In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia, led by Paul Juusten, Bishop of Åbo which arrived in Novgorod in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod. The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party and that their clothes and money be taken, they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets. Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, fortunately for them, this occurred at the same time Ivan and his oprichniki were on their way to an assault on Novgorod
.
On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania. Russia considered the return of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter. According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded they abandon their claim to Reval, provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war. Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.
in 1563 which ended in 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin. Primarily fought in western and southern Scandinavia
, the war involved important naval battles fought in the Baltic
. When Danish-held Varberg
surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565, 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden. Among them was Pontus de la Gardie
, who became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War thereafter. Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral Peter or Per Munck, who bombarded Swedish Reval from sea in July 1569.
Under the Treaty of Stettin, Denmark became the supreme and dominating power in Northern Europe
, yet failed to restore the Kalmar Union
. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the Great Northern War
in 1720. Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian II
. However, Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs. The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued. From Ivan's point of view, this merely enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.
(Paide) in 1573 where, after its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg, to which the army departed in November 1573 with Klas Åkesson Tott (the Elder) in overall command and Pontus de la Gardie
as field commander. There were also Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as Helsingfors (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.
John's counter-offensive stalled at the siege of Wesenberg in 1574 when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other. This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions, particularly for the infantry. The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 daler
. John gave them the castles of Hapsal, Leal
and Lode
as security but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.
Meanwhile, efforts by Magnus to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother, Frederick II of Denmark
forthcoming. Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity which made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1561 whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.
At the same time Crimean Tatars
devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the Russo-Crimean Wars
. Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while oprichnina
had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean and Nogai
forces in 1572, oprichnina
was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed. Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, cossacks and tartars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.
Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577 and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement. Swedish forces were besieged in Reval and central Livonia raided as far as Dünaburg
(Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius
. The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus, declared monarch of the Kingdom of Livonia
in 1570. Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year, having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. When Kokenhusen
(Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders. The campaign then focussed on Wenden
(Cēsis
, Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.
. Both Batory's fiancèe Anna Jagiellon
and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575, three days apart; Maximilan's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating. Batory, ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia, was constrained by the opposition of Danzig (Gdansk), which resisted Batory's accession with Danish support. The ensuing Danzig War
of 1577 ended when Batory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200,000 zloty. For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointed Hohenzollern
George Frederick
as administrator of Prussia and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.
Swedish King John III and Stefan Batory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigimund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine had not been resolved. Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it. The 120,000 daler lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.
By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg while a Polish–Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578. Russian forces failed to retake the town in February, an attack followed by a Swedish offensive, targeting Pernau
(Pärnu), Dorpat and Novgorod among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recaptured Oberpahlen
(Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden. Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish and Swedish soldiers. In the ensuing Battle of Wenden
, Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first time serious defeat in Livonia.
Batory accelerated the formation of the hussars, a new well-organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy. Similarly, he improved an already effective artillery system and recruited cossacks. Batory gathered 56,000 troops, 30,000 of them from Lithuania, for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk, as part of a wider campaign. With Ivan's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion, the city fell on 30 August 1579. Batory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court, Jan Zamoyski
, to lead a force of 48,000 including 25,000 men from Lithuania, against the fortress of Velikie Luki which he went on to capture on 5 September 1580. Without further significant resistance, garrisons such as Sokol, Velizh and Usvzat fell quickly. In 1581, the force besieged Pskov
, a well-fortified and heavily defended fortress. However, financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping, and Batory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter. Not realising that the Polish–Lithuanian advance was on the wane, Ivan signed the Truce of Jam Zapolski.
The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led to Pontus de la Gardie
's appointment as commander-in-chief. The towns of Kexholm and Padis were taken by Swedish forces in 1580 then in 1581, concurrent with the fall of Wesenberg
, a mercenary
army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva. A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland. Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres, 7,000 Russians were killed according to Russow
's contemporary chronicle. The fall of Narva was followed by those of Ivangorod
, Jama
and Koporye
, leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.
papal legate
Antonio Possevino
resulted in the 1582 Truce of Jam Zapolski between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce. Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narva—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Batory's control to Russia. Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Batory. The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601. Batory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narva.
Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended in 1583 when the Tsar concluded the Truce of Plussa (Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa) with Sweden. Russia relinquished most of Ingria but left Narva and Ivangorod under Swedish control. Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590. During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.
south of the Düna
(Daugava) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius, later modified by the 1617 Formula regiminis and Statuta Curlandiæ, which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense. North of the Düna, Batory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted the Duchy of Livonia
, regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war. Riga's privileges had already been reduced by the Treaty of Drohiczyn
in 1581. Polish
gradually replaced German
as the administrative language and the establishment of voivodeships reduced the Baltic German
administration. The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced the counter-reformation
in a process assisted by Batory, who gave the Roman Catholic Church
revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists. Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not convert en masse, while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.
In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed while the ensuing Russo-Swedish War of 1590–5 ended with the Treaty of Teusina (Tyavzino, Tyavzin), under which Sweden had to cede Ingria
and Kexholm to Russia. The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III
, who as son of John III of Sweden
(died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle, Charles of Södermanland
(later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself. Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599 war against Sigismund
, which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish riksdag
.
Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporate Swedish Estonia
into the Duchy of Livonia. Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia and invaded the Livonian duchy
, starting a series of Polish–Swedish wars
. At the same time, Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ("Time of Troubles
") when none of the many claimants had prevailed. This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides, the latter starting the Polish–Muscovite War. Charles IX's forces were expelled from Livonia after major setbacks at the battles of Kircholm
(1605) and Klushino
(1610). During the later Ingrian War
, Charles' successor Gustavus Adolphus
retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617 Treaty of Stolbovo
along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia. In 1617, when Sweden had recovered from the Kalmar War
with Denmark, several Livonian towns were captured, but only Pernau remained under Swedish control after a Polish–Lithuanian counter-offensive
a second campaign that started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish–Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia, where the dominion
of Swedish Livonia
was created. Swedish forces then advanced through Royal Prussia
and Poland–Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629 Treaty of Altmark.
The Danish province of Øsel was ceded to Sweden under the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro, which ended the Torstenson War, one theatre of the Thirty Years' War
. It was retained after the Peace of Oliva and the Treaty of Copenhagen, both in 1660. The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia
during the Great Northern War
, an action formalised in the Treaty of Nystad
(1721).
Estonia
Estonia , officially the Republic of Estonia , is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia , and to the east by Lake Peipsi and the Russian Federation . Across the Baltic Sea lies...
and Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
when the Tsardom of Russia
Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia was the name of the centralized Russian state from Ivan IV's assumption of the title of Tsar in 1547 till Peter the Great's foundation of the Russian Empire in 1721.From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 a year...
faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway
Denmark–Norway
Denmark–Norway is the historiographical name for a former political entity consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, including the originally Norwegian dependencies of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands...
, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union (later Commonwealth) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
and the Kingdom of Poland
Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)
The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Jogaila , Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo or Krėva Act, united Poland and Lithuania under the rule of a single monarch...
.
During the period 1558–1578, Russia dominated the region with early military successes at Dorpat
Tartu
Tartu is the second largest city of Estonia. In contrast to Estonia's political and financial capital Tallinn, Tartu is often considered the intellectual and cultural hub, especially since it is home to Estonia's oldest and most renowned university. Situated 186 km southeast of Tallinn, the...
(Tartu) and Narva
Narva
Narva is the third largest city in Estonia. It is located at the eastern extreme point of Estonia, by the Russian border, on the Narva River which drains Lake Peipus.-Early history:...
. Russian dissolution of the Livonian Confederation
Livonian Confederation
Terra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
brought Poland–Lithuania into the conflict while Sweden and Denmark both intervened between 1559 and 1561. Swedish Estonia
Swedish Estonia
The Duchy of Estonia , also known as Swedish Estonia, was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1561 until 1721, when it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, following its capitulation in the Great Northern War. The dominion arose when the northern parts of present-day Estonia were united...
was established despite constant invasion from Russia and Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death.-King of Denmark:Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg. Frederick II stands as the typical renaissance ruler of Denmark. Unlike his father, he...
bought the old Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek, which he placed under the control of his brother Magnus of Holstein. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian vassal state
Vassal state
A vassal state is any state that is subordinate to another. The vassal in these cases is the ruler, rather than the state itself. Being a vassal most commonly implies providing military assistance to the dominant state when requested to do so; it sometimes implies paying tribute, but a state which...
Kingdom of Livonia
Kingdom of Livonia
The Kingdom of Livonia was a nominal state in what is now the territory of the present-day Estonia and Latvia, declared as such by Ivan IV during the Livonian War but never properly established. On June 10, 1570 the Danish Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow where he was crowned King of Livonia...
, which nominally existed until Magnus' defection in 1576.
In 1576, Stefan Batory
Stefan Batory
Stephen Báthory was a Hungarian noble Prince of Transylvania , then King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania . He was a member of the Somlyó branch of the noble Hungarian Báthory family...
became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at the Battle of Wenden. This was followed by an extended campaign through Russia culminating in the long and difficult siege of Pskov
Siege of Pskov
The Siege of Pskov, known as the Pskov Defense in Russia took place between August of 1581 and February of 1582, when the army of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stefan Batory laid an unsuccessful siege and successful blockade of the city of Pskov during the final stage of the Livonian...
. Under the 1582 Truce of Jam Zapolski, which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed the Truce of Plussa with Sweden gaining most of Ingria
Ingria
Ingria is a historical region in the eastern Baltic, now part of Russia, comprising the southern bank of the river Neva, between the Gulf of Finland, the Narva River, Lake Peipus in the west, and Lake Ladoga and the western bank of the Volkhov river in the east...
and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.
Pre-war Livonia
By the mid-16th century, economically prosperous Old Livonia had become a region organised into the decentralised and religiously divided Livonian ConfederationLivonian Confederation
Terra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
. Its territories consisted of the Livonian branch
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights...
of the Teutonic Order, the prince-bishoprics of Dorpat
Bishopric of Dorpat
The Bishopric of Dorpat was a medieval principality and a catholic diocese which existed from 1224 to 1558, generally encompassing what are now Tartu, Põlva, Võru and Jõgeva counties in Estonia. The Bishopric was part of Livonian Confederation...
, Ösel–Wiek, as well as Courland
Bishopric of Courland
The Bishopric of Courland was the second smallest ecclesiastical state in the Livonian Confederation founded in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade...
, the Archbishopric of Riga and the city of Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
. Together with Riga, the cities of Dorpat and Reval (Tallinn), along with the knightly estates, enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently. The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known as landtag
Landtag
A Landtag is a representative assembly or parliament in German-speaking countries with some legislative authority.- Name :...
s. As well as a divided political administration, there were also persistent rivalries between the archbishop of Riga and the landmeister of the Order for hegemony.The Order was led by a hochmeister
Hochmeister
The grand master is the holder of the supreme office of the Teutonic Order. It is equivalent to the grand master of other military orders and the superior general in non-military Roman Catholic religious orders...
, an office that since 1525 had been executed by the deutschmeister responsible for the bailiwicks in the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle of gebietigers headed by a landmeister elected from amongst the membership A schism had existed within the Order since the Reformation
Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led...
had spread to Livonia in the 1520s, although the transformation of the country into a Lutheran
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the church launched the Protestant Reformation...
region was a gradual process, resisted by part of the Order which to a varying degree remained sympathetic to Roman Catholicism
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
. As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies. Robert I. Frost
Robert I. Frost
Robert I. Frost is a British historian and academic.He attended the University of St Andrews, the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland. He earned his doctorate in the School of Slavonic and East European Studies at the University of London.He taught school for three years in the mid-1980s...
notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."
The Order's landmeister and gebietiger, as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class. Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles. Wilhelm von Brandenburg was appointed as archbishop of Riga and Christoph von Mecklenburg as his coadjutor, with the help of his brother Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg–Ansbach, the former Prussian hochmeister who had secularised
Secularization
Secularization is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward non-religious values and secular institutions...
the southern Teutonic Order state and in 1525 established himself as duke in Prussia. Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model. At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("Rekuperation") in Prussia, opposed secularization and creation of a hereditary duchy.
Aspirations of Livonia's neighbours
By the time the Livonian War broke out, the Hanseatic LeagueHanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was an economic alliance of trading cities and their merchant guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe...
had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperous Baltic Sea
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
trade. While still involved and with increasing sales, it now shared the market with Western European mercenary fleets, most notably from the Dutch
Low Countries
The Low Countries are the historical lands around the low-lying delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse rivers, including the modern countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France and western Germany....
Seventeen Provinces
Seventeen Provinces
The Seventeen Provinces were a personal union of states in the Low Countries in the 15th century and 16th century, roughly covering the current Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, a good part of the North of France , and a small part of Western Germany.The Seventeen Provinces were originally held by...
. The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships, and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade, its Livonian members Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
, Reval and trading partner Narva
Narva
Narva is the third largest city in Estonia. It is located at the eastern extreme point of Estonia, by the Russian border, on the Narva River which drains Lake Peipus.-Early history:...
were left without suitable protection. The Danish
Kingdom of Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark or the Danish Realm , is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting of Denmark proper in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. Denmark is the hegemonial part, where the...
navy, the most powerful in the Baltic Sea, controlled the entrance to the Baltic Sea
Oresund
The Sound , is the strait that separates the Danish island Zealand from the southern Swedish province of Scania. Its width is just at the narrowest point between Helsingør, Denmark, and Helsingborg, Sweden...
, collected requisite tolls
Sound Dues
The Sound Dues were a toll on the use of the Sound which constituted up to two thirds of Denmark's state income in the 16th and 17th centuries...
and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of Bornholm
Bornholm
Bornholm is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea located to the east of the rest of Denmark, the south of Sweden, and the north of Poland. The main industries on the island include fishing, arts and crafts like glass making and pottery using locally worked clay, and dairy farming. Tourism is...
and Gotland
Gotland
Gotland is a county, province, municipality and diocese of Sweden; it is Sweden's largest island and the largest island in the Baltic Sea. At 3,140 square kilometers in area, the region makes up less than one percent of Sweden's total land area...
.
A long bar of Danish territories in the south and her lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limited Sweden's access to the Baltic trade. Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow Gulf of Finland
Gulf of Finland
The Gulf of Finland is the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea. It extends between Finland and Estonia all the way to Saint Petersburg in Russia, where the river Neva drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include Helsinki and Tallinn...
. Before the Livonian war, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian Tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557, which culminated in the 1557 Treaty of Novgorod
Treaty of Novgorod (1557)
The Treaty, Truce or Second Peace of Novgorod was concluded in March 1557. It ended the Russo-Swedish War , a series of skirmishes in the Vyborg and Oreshek areas resulting from Swedish attempts to keep Livonia, where the Teutonic Order's rule had collapsed, out of the Russian sphere of...
.
Through its absorption of the principalities of Novgorod
Novgorod Republic
The Novgorod Republic was a large medieval Russian state which stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains between the 12th and 15th centuries, centred on the city of Novgorod...
(1478) and Pskov (1510), the Tsardom of Russia
Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia was the name of the centralized Russian state from Ivan IV's assumption of the title of Tsar in 1547 till Peter the Great's foundation of the Russian Empire in 1721.From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 a year...
had become Livonia's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing the khanate
Khanate
Khanate, or Chanat, is a Turco-Mongol-originated word used to describe a political entity ruled by a Khan. In modern Turkish, the word used is kağanlık, and in modern Azeri of the republic of Azerbaijan, xanlıq. In Mongolian the word khanlig is used, as in "Khereidiin Khanlig" meaning the Khanate...
s of Kazan
Khanate of Kazan
The Khanate of Kazan was a medieval Tatar state which occupied the territory of former Volga Bulgaria between 1438 and 1552. Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. The khanate covered contemporary Tatarstan, Mari El,...
(1552) and Astrakhan
Astrakhan Khanate
The Khanate of Astrakhan was a Tatar feudal state that appeared after the collapse of the Golden Horde. The Khanate existed in the 15th and 16th centuries in the area adjacent to the mouth of the Volga river, where the contemporary city of Astrakhan/Hajji Tarkhan is now located...
(1556). The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. The new Ivangorod
Ivangorod
Ivangorod is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the right bank of the Narva River by the Russian-Estonian border, west of St. Petersburg. Population: The town is known for the Ivangorod fortress....
port built by Tsar Ivan on the eastern shore of the Narva River
Narva River
The Narva is a river flowing into the Baltic Sea, the largest river in Estonia. Draining Lake Peipsi, the river forms the border of Estonia and Russia and flows through the towns of Narva/Ivangorod and Narva-Jõesuu into Narva Bay. Though the river is only 77 km long, in terms of volume...
in 1550 was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters. Thereafter the Tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6,000 mark
Mark (money)
Mark was a measure of weight mainly for gold and silver, commonly used throughout western Europe and often equivalent to 8 ounces. Considerable variations, however, occurred throughout the Middle Ages Mark (from a merging of three Teutonic/Germanic languages words, Latinized in 9th century...
s to keep the Bishopric of Dorpat
Bishopric of Dorpat
The Bishopric of Dorpat was a medieval principality and a catholic diocese which existed from 1224 to 1558, generally encompassing what are now Tartu, Põlva, Võru and Jõgeva counties in Estonia. The Bishopric was part of Livonian Confederation...
, based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state. The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to Ivan by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations. Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary. He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the Caspian Sea
Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. The sea has a surface area of and a volume of...
because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.
The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus
Sigismund II Augustus I was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, the only son of Sigismund I the Old, whom Sigismund II succeeded in 1548...
was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations. Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes. Therefore Sigismund supported his cousin Wilhelm von Brandenburg, archbishop of Riga, in his conflicts with Wilhelm von Fürstenberg, the Livonian Order's landmeister. Sigismund hoped that Livonia, just like the Duchy of Prussia under Duke Albert, would become a vassal state of Poland–Lithuania. With weak support in Livonia, von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies. Among his few Livonian supporters was landmarschall Jasper von Munster, with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert. However, Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action, fearing that it would leave the Kiev Voivodeship exposed to a pending Russian attack. When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan, he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds of Kokenhusen and Ronneburg
Rauna Castle
Rauna Castle ruins are located in the village of Rauna, in Cēsis District, Latvia.- History :Rauna castle was built in 1262 and became the winter residence of the Archbishop of Riga. The biggest reconstructions occurred under the reign of Archbishop Jasper Linde . One of the new towers built...
. Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania, but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained at Adsel and Treiden
Turaida Castle
Turaida Castle is a recently reconstructed medieval castle in Turaida, in the Vidzeme region of Latvia, on the opposite bank of the Gauja River from Sigulda....
. This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by the Pomeranian dukes
Duchy of Pomerania
The Duchy of Pomerania was a duchy in Pomerania on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, ruled by dukes of the House of Pomerania ....
, the Danish King, Emperor Ferdinand I
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand I was Holy Roman Emperor from 1558 and king of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526 until his death. Before his accession, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.The key events during his reign were the contest...
and the estates of the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
. A cross-party meeting in Lübeck
Lübeck
The Hanseatic City of Lübeck is the second-largest city in Schleswig-Holstein, in northern Germany, and one of the major ports of Germany. It was for several centuries the "capital" of the Hanseatic League and, because of its Brick Gothic architectural heritage, is listed by UNESCO as a World...
to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1 April 1557, but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys. Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by the landmeister's son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80,000. He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp in Pozvol in September 1557. There they signed the Treaty of Pozvol
Treaty of Pozvol
The Treaty or Peace of Pozvol, Pasvalys or Pozwol was a peace treaty and an alliance concluded on 5 and 14 September 1557 between the Livonian Confederation and the Polish-Lithuanian union, whereby the former put its territories under Polish-Lithuanian protection...
, which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.
Russian invasion of Livonia
Ivan IV regarded the Livonian ConfederationLivonian Confederation
Terra Mariana was the official name for Medieval Livonia or Old Livonia which was formed in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade in the territories comprising present day Estonia and Latvia...
's approach to the Polish–Lithuanian union for protection under the Treaty of Pozvol
Treaty of Pozvol
The Treaty or Peace of Pozvol, Pasvalys or Pozwol was a peace treaty and an alliance concluded on 5 and 14 September 1557 between the Livonian Confederation and the Polish-Lithuanian union, whereby the former put its territories under Polish-Lithuanian protection...
as casus belli
Casus belli
is a Latin expression meaning the justification for acts of war. means "incident", "rupture" or indeed "case", while means bellic...
. - in 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen-year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland–Lithuania. In January 1558, Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia. The Russians were seen by local peasants as liberators from the German control of Livonia. Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat in May, Narva in July, says Narva in May and Dorpat in July. and laid siege to Reval. Reinforced by 1,200 landsknecht
Landsknecht
Landsknechte were European, predominantly German mercenary pikemen and supporting foot soldiers from the late 15th to the late 16th century, and achieved the reputation for being the universal mercenary of Early modern Europe.-Etymology:The term is from German, Land "land, country" + Knecht...
e, 100 gunners and ammunition from Germany, Livonian forces successfully retook Wesenberg
Rakvere
Rakvere is a town in northern Estonia and the county seat of Lääne-Viru County, 20 km south of the Gulf of Finland.-History:The earliest signs of human settlement dating back to the 3rd-5th centuries AD have been found on the present theatre hill. Probably to protect that settlement, a wooden...
(Rakvere) along with a number of other fortresses. Although the Germans raided Russian territory, Dorpat, Narva and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands. The initial Russian advance was led by the Khan of Kasimov
Qasim Khanate
Qasim Khanate or Kingdom of Qasim was a Tatar territorial formation , vassal of Russia, which existed from 1452 till 1681 in the territory of modern Ryazan Oblast in Russia with its capital Kasimov, in the middle stream of the Oka River...
, with two other Tartar princes at the head of a force that included Russian boiars, Tartar and pomest'e cavalry as well as cossack
Cossack
Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi-military communities in what is today Ukraine and Southern Russia inhabiting sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper and Don basins and who played an important role in the...
s, who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers. Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560. In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia. A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the Russo-Crimean Wars
Russo-Crimean Wars
The Russo-Crimean Wars were fought between the forces of the Muscovy and the invading Tatars of the Crimean Khanate.-History:...
.
Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor Ferdinand I
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
Ferdinand I was Holy Roman Emperor from 1558 and king of Bohemia and Hungary from 1526 until his death. Before his accession, he ruled the Austrian hereditary lands of the Habsburgs in the name of his elder brother, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.The key events during his reign were the contest...
, then turned to Poland–Lithuania. Landmeister von Fürstenburg fled to Poland–Lithuania to be replaced by Gotthard Kettler
Gotthard Kettler
Gotthard von Kettler was the last Master of the Livonian Order and the first Duke of Courland and Semigallia....
. In June 1559, the estates of Livonia came under Polish–Lithuanian protection through the first Treaty of Vilnius
Treaty of Vilnius (1559)
The Treaty of Vilnius or Vilna was concluded on 31 August 1559, during the Livonian War, between the Livonian Order and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at Vilnius . Gotthard von Kettler put the lands of the order under protection of Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Sigismund II Augustus...
(Vilna). The Polish sejm
General sejm
The general sejm was the parliament of Poland for four centuries from the late 15th until the late 18th century.-Genesis:The power of early sejms grew during the period of Poland's fragmentation , when the power of individual rulers waned and that of various councils and wiece grew...
refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state from the 12th /13th century until 1569 and then as a constituent part of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1791 when Constitution of May 3, 1791 abolished it in favor of unitary state. It was founded by the Lithuanians, one of the polytheistic...
. In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
, Reval or Pernau. The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Ērģeme
Battle of Ergeme
The Battle of Ērģeme was fought on 2 August 1560 in present-day Latvia as part of the Livonian War between the forces of Ivan IV of Russia and the Livonian Confederation. It was the last battle fought by the German knights in Livonia and an important Russian victory...
in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.
Eric XIV, the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help. The weakened Livonian Order
Livonian Order
The Livonian Order was an autonomous Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order and a member of the Livonian Confederation from 1435–1561. After being defeated by Samogitians in the 1236 Battle of Schaulen , the remnants of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights...
was dissolved by the second Treaty of Vilnius
Treaty of Vilnius (1561)
The Treaty of Vilnius or Vilna was concluded on 28 November 1561, during the Livonian War, between the Livonian Confederation and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at Vilnius...
in 1561. Its lands were secularised as the Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
and Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia is the name of a duchy in the Baltic region that existed from 1562 to 1569 as a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and from 1569...
and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism. Included in the treaty was the Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the Augsburg Confession
Augsburg Confession
The Augsburg Confession, also known as the "Augustana" from its Latin name, Confessio Augustana, is the primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church and one of the most important documents of the Lutheran reformation...
, the Indygenat
Indygenat
Indygenat in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was a recognition of foreign status as a noble. A foreign noble, after indygenat, received all privileges of a Polish szlachcic. In Polish history, 413 foreign noble families were recognized...
, and continuation of the traditional German administration. The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.
Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed growing Polish–Lithuanian union, and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV. The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops. Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.
Danish and Swedish interventions
In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection, Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26 September 1559 giving Frederick II of DenmarkFrederick II of Denmark
Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death.-King of Denmark:Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg. Frederick II stands as the typical renaissance ruler of Denmark. Unlike his father, he...
the right to nominate the bishop of Ösel–Wiek, an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30,000 thaler
Thaler
The Thaler was a silver coin used throughout Europe for almost four hundred years. Its name lives on in various currencies as the dollar or tolar. Etymologically, "Thaler" is an abbreviation of "Joachimsthaler", a coin type from the city of Joachimsthal in Bohemia, where some of the first such...
s. Frederick II nominated his brother, Duke Magnus of Holstein as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region. Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing the Bishopric of Courland
Bishopric of Courland
The Bishopric of Courland was the second smallest ecclesiastical state in the Livonian Confederation founded in the aftermath of the Livonian Crusade...
without Frederick's consent and trying to expand into Harrien
Harju County
Harju County , or Harjumaa , nowadays one of 15 counties of Estonia. It is situated in northern Estonia, on the south coast of the Gulf of Finland, and borders Lääne-Viru County to the east, Järva County to the south-east, Rapla County to the south, and Lääne County to the south-west.528,468 people...
–Wierland
Virumaa
Virumaa is a former independent county in Ancient Estonia. Now it is divided into Ida-Viru County or Eastern Vironia and Lääne-Viru County or Western Vironia...
(Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.
In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and the noble corporations
Baltic Noble Corporations
Baltic Noble Corporations of Courland, Livonia, Estonia, and Oesel were medieval fiefdoms formed by German nobles in the 13th century under vassalage to the Teutonic Knights and Denmark in modern Latvia and Estonia...
of Harrien–Wierland and Jerwen
Järva County
Järva County , or Järvamaa , is one of 15 counties of Estonia. It is situated in central part of the country and borders Lääne-Viru County to the east, Jõgeva County to the south-east, Viljandi County to the south, Pärnu County to the south-west, Rapla County to the west, and Harju County to the...
(Järva) yielded to Sweden to form the Duchy of Estonia
Swedish Estonia
The Duchy of Estonia , also known as Swedish Estonia, was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1561 until 1721, when it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, following its capitulation in the Great Northern War. The dominion arose when the northern parts of present-day Estonia were united...
. Reval, similarly, accepted Swedish rule. Denmark dominated the Baltic, and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic. Doing so would help Sweden control the West's trade with Russia. This helped to precipitate the Northern Seven Years' War
Northern Seven Years' War
The Northern Seven Years' War was the war between Kingdom of Sweden and a coalition of Denmark–Norway, Lübeck and the Polish–Lithuanian union, fought between 1563 and 1570...
since in 1561, Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval, claiming historical rights relating to Danish Estonia
Danish Estonia
Danish Estonia refers to the territories of present-day Estonia that were ruled by Denmark firstly during the 13th–14th centuries and again in the 16th–17th centuries....
. When Erik XIV's forces seized Pernau in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.
Sigismund maintained close relations with Erik XIV's brother, John, Duke of Finland
John III of Sweden
-Family:John married his first wife, Catherine Jagellonica of Poland , house of Jagiello, in Vilnius on 4 October 1562. In Sweden, she is known as Katarina Jagellonica. She was the sister of king Sigismund II Augustus of Poland...
(later John III) and in October 1562, John married Sigismund's sister, Catherine, thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV. While Erik XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000 dalers
Swedish riksdaler
The riksdaler was the name of a Swedish coin first minted in 1604. Between 1777 and 1873, it was the currency of Sweden. The daler, like the dollar, was named after the German Thaler. The similarly named Reichsthaler, rijksdaalder, and rigsdaler were used in Germany and Austria-Hungary, the...
and received seven Livonian castles as security. This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Erik XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and Lübeck
Lübeck
The Hanseatic City of Lübeck is the second-largest city in Schleswig-Holstein, in northern Germany, and one of the major ports of Germany. It was for several centuries the "capital" of the Hanseatic League and, because of its Brick Gothic architectural heritage, is listed by UNESCO as a World...
against Erik XIV in October the same year.
1562–1570
The intervention of Denmark, Sweden and Poland-Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic, known contemporaneously as the dominium maris balticiDominium maris baltici
The establishment of a was one of the primary political aims of the Danish and Swedish kingdoms in the late medieval and Early Modern eras...
. While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting, a period of low-intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified. Denmark, Sweden and to some extent Poland–Lithuania were occupied with the Nordic Seven Years' War (1563–1570) taking place in the Western Baltic, but Livonia remained strategically important. In 1562, Denmark and Russia concluded the Treaty of Mozhaysk
Treaty of Mozhaysk
The Treaty of Mozhaysk was a Danish-Russian treaty concluded on 7 August 1562, during the Livonian War...
, respecting each other's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations. In 1564, Sweden and Russia concluded a seven-years truce. Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs of mental disorder with Ivan IV and turning against part of the Tsardom's nobility and people with the oprichina that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.
Russian war with Poland–Lithuania
When the Russo-Lithuanian truce expired in 1562, Ivan IV rejected Sigismund's offer of an extension. The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia, and invaded Lithuania. His army raided VitebskVitebsk
Vitebsk, also known as Viciebsk or Vitsyebsk , is a city in Belarus, near the border with Russia. The capital of the Vitebsk Oblast, in 2004 it had 342,381 inhabitants, making it the country's fourth largest city...
and, after a series of border clashes, took Polotsk in 1563. Lithuanian victories came at the Battle of Ula
Battle of Ula
The Battle of Ula or Battle of Chashniki was fought during the Livonian War on January 26, 1564 between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Tsardom of Russia on the Ula River north of Chashniki in the Vitebsk Region...
in 1564 and at Czasniki (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania. The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection of Andrey Kurbsky
Andrey Kurbsky
Knyaz Andrey Mikhailovich Kurbsky was an intimate friend and then a leading political opponent of the Russian tsar Ivan the Terrible. His correspondence with the tsar is a unique source for the history of 16th-century Russia...
, led Ivan IV to move his capital to the Alexandrov Kremlin
Alexandrov Kremlin
The tsar’s residence in the Alexandrovskaya village is an old Russian fortress which served as the actual capital of the oprichnina in the Moscow state from 1564 until 1581...
while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his oprichniki.
A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566. Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia, with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area. However, this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats, who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia, including Riga, through the ceding of Courland
Courland
Courland is one of the historical and cultural regions of Latvia. The regions of Semigallia and Selonia are sometimes considered as part of Courland.- Geography and climate :...
in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian–Russian border. The transfer of Riga, and the surrounding entrance to the River Dvina, troubled the Lithuanians, since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it. Ivan expanded his demands in July, calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat and Narva. No agreement was forthcoming and a ten-day break was taken in negotiations, during which time various Russian meetings were held (including the zemsky sobor
Zemsky Sobor
The zemsky sobor was the first Russian parliament of the feudal Estates type, in the 16th and 17th centuries. The term roughly means assembly of the land. It could be summoned either by tsar, or patriarch, or the Boyar Duma...
, the Assembly of the Land) to discuss the issues at stake. Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (it not yet having been conquered) while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the ambassadors' return to Lithuania.
In 1569, the Treaty of Lublin unified Poland and Lithuania into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
, tied to Lithuania in real union
Real union
Real union is a union of two or more states, which share some state institutions as in contrast to personal unions; however they are not as unified as states in a political union...
since the Union of Grodno
Union of Grodno (1566)
The Union of Grodno established a real union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Duchy of Livonia on 25 December 1566, during the Livonian War. Livonia had submitted itself to Sigismund II Augustus by the Treaty of Vilnius . Livonia's administrative division was re-organized with its...
in 1566, came under Polish–Lithuanian joint sovereignty. In June 1570 a three-year truce was signed with Russia. Sigimund II, the Commonwealth's first King, died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the first free election in Polish history. Some Lithuanian nobles, in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy, proposed a Russian candidate. Ivan, however, demanded the return of Kiev
Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
, an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son, Fedor, as King. The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose Henry of Valois (Henryk Walezy), brother of King Charles IX of France
Charles IX of France
Charles IX was King of France, ruling from 1560 until his death. His reign was dominated by the Wars of Religion. He is best known as king at the time of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre.-Childhood:...
.
Russian war with Sweden
In 1564, Sweden and Russia agreed the Treaty of DorpatTreaty of Dorpat
The Treaty of Dorpat was concluded in May 1564, during the Livonian War. Ivan IV of Russia accepted the subordinance of Reval and some Livonian castles to Erik XIV of Sweden, and in turn Erik XIV accepted the subordinance of the rest of Livonia to Ivan IV. Subsequently, Russia and Sweden agreed...
, whereby Russia recognised Sweden's right to Reval and other castles, and Sweden accepted Russia's patrimony over the rest of Livonia. A seven-year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565. Eric XIV of Sweden
Eric XIV of Sweden
-Family and descendants:Eric XIV had several relationships before his marriage. With Agda Persdotter he had four daughters:#Margareta Eriksdotter , married 1592 to Olov Simonsson, vicar of Horn....
was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the Sture Murders
Sture Murders
The Sture Murders in Uppsala, Sweden of 24 May 1567 were the murders of five incarcerated Swedish nobles by Erik XIV of Sweden, who at that time was in a state of serious mental disorder, and his guards. The nobles, among them three members of the influential Sture family, had been charged with...
(Sturemorden) of 1567, and was replaced by his half-brother John III
John III of Sweden
-Family:John married his first wife, Catherine Jagellonica of Poland , house of Jagiello, in Vilnius on 4 October 1562. In Sweden, she is known as Katarina Jagellonica. She was the sister of king Sigismund II Augustus of Poland...
. Both Russia and Sweden had other problems, and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia. Ivan IV had requested the return of John's wife, Catherine Jagellonica to Russia, supposedly afraid that John would die while incarcerated by his brother. In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia, led by Paul Juusten, Bishop of Åbo which arrived in Novgorod in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod. The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party and that their clothes and money be taken, they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets. Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, fortunately for them, this occurred at the same time Ivan and his oprichniki were on their way to an assault on Novgorod
Massacre of Novgorod
The Massacre of Novgorod was an attack launched by Tsar Ivan IV’s oprichniki on the city of Novgorod, Russia in 1570. The sheer number of casualties combined with the extreme level of violent cruelty makes this campaign possibly the most vicious in the brutal legacy of the oprichnina.-Paranoia,...
.
On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania. Russia considered the return of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter. According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded they abandon their claim to Reval, provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war. Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.
Impact of the Northern Seven Years' War
Quarrels between Denmark and Sweden had led to the Northern Seven Years' WarNorthern Seven Years' War
The Northern Seven Years' War was the war between Kingdom of Sweden and a coalition of Denmark–Norway, Lübeck and the Polish–Lithuanian union, fought between 1563 and 1570...
in 1563 which ended in 1570 with the Treaty of Stettin. Primarily fought in western and southern Scandinavia
Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...
, the war involved important naval battles fought in the Baltic
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
. When Danish-held Varberg
Varberg Fortress
Varberg Fortress is a former fortification in Varberg, Halland County, Sweden .-History:Varberg Fortress was built in 1287-1300 by count Jacob Nielsen as protection against his Danish king, who had declared him an outlaw after the murder of King Eric V of Denmark.Jacob had close connections with...
surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565, 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden. Among them was Pontus de la Gardie
Pontus De la Gardie
Pontus De la Gardie was a French nobleman and general in the service of Denmark and Sweden.He was born Ponce De La Gardie in Russol , Languedoc, as a son of Jacques De la Gardie and Catherine de Sainte-Colombe. As a youngster, he wanted to become a priest and was educated in a monastery...
, who became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War thereafter. Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral Peter or Per Munck, who bombarded Swedish Reval from sea in July 1569.
Under the Treaty of Stettin, Denmark became the supreme and dominating power in Northern Europe
Northern Europe
Northern Europe is the northern part or region of Europe. Northern Europe typically refers to the seven countries in the northern part of the European subcontinent which includes Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Finland and Sweden...
, yet failed to restore the Kalmar Union
Kalmar Union
The Kalmar Union is a historiographical term meaning a series of personal unions that united the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway , and Sweden under a single monarch, though intermittently and with a population...
. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the Great Northern War
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in northern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of...
in 1720. Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
Maximilian II
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian II was king of Bohemia and king of the Romans from 1562, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1563, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from 1564 until his death...
. However, Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs. The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued. From Ivan's point of view, this merely enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.
1570–1577: Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia
During the early 1570s, King John III of Sweden, faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia. Reval withstood a Russian siege in 1570 and 1571, but several smaller towns were taken by Russian forces. The Russian advance concluded with the sacking of WeissensteinPaide
Paide is the capital of Järva County, Estonia.A castle built by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword is located here. The town was formally founded 30 September 1291 by Halt, master of the Livonian Order....
(Paide) in 1573 where, after its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg, to which the army departed in November 1573 with Klas Åkesson Tott (the Elder) in overall command and Pontus de la Gardie
Pontus De la Gardie
Pontus De la Gardie was a French nobleman and general in the service of Denmark and Sweden.He was born Ponce De La Gardie in Russol , Languedoc, as a son of Jacques De la Gardie and Catherine de Sainte-Colombe. As a youngster, he wanted to become a priest and was educated in a monastery...
as field commander. There were also Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as Helsingfors (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.
John's counter-offensive stalled at the siege of Wesenberg in 1574 when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other. This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions, particularly for the infantry. The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 daler
Swedish riksdaler
The riksdaler was the name of a Swedish coin first minted in 1604. Between 1777 and 1873, it was the currency of Sweden. The daler, like the dollar, was named after the German Thaler. The similarly named Reichsthaler, rijksdaalder, and rigsdaler were used in Germany and Austria-Hungary, the...
. John gave them the castles of Hapsal, Leal
Lihula
Lihula is a town in Estonia with population of 1,614 . It is a centre of a rural municipality in Lääne County.The castle of Leal was first mentioned in 1211. It was the centre of Diocese Saare-Lääne...
and Lode
Lode
In geology, a lode is a deposit of metalliferous ore that fills or is embedded in a fissure in a rock formation or a vein of ore that is deposited or embedded between layers of rock....
as security but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.
Meanwhile, efforts by Magnus to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother, Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II of Denmark
Frederick II was King of Denmark and Norway and duke of Schleswig from 1559 until his death.-King of Denmark:Frederick II was the son of King Christian III of Denmark and Norway and Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg. Frederick II stands as the typical renaissance ruler of Denmark. Unlike his father, he...
forthcoming. Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity which made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1561 whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.
At the same time Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars or Crimeans are a Turkic ethnic group that originally resided in Crimea. They speak the Crimean Tatar language...
devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the Russo-Crimean Wars
Russo-Crimean Wars
The Russo-Crimean Wars were fought between the forces of the Muscovy and the invading Tatars of the Crimean Khanate.-History:...
. Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while oprichnina
Oprichnina
The oprichnina is the period of Russian history between Tsar Ivan the Terrible's 1565 initiation and his 1572 disbanding of a domestic policy of secret police, mass repressions, public executions, and confiscation of land from Russian aristocrats...
had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean and Nogai
Nogai Horde
The Nogai Horde was a confederation of about eighteen Turkic and Mongol tribes that occupied the Pontic-Caspian steppe from about 1500 until they were pushed west by the Kalmyks and south by the Russians in the 17th century. The Mongol tribe called the Manghits constituted a core of the Horde...
forces in 1572, oprichnina
Oprichnina
The oprichnina is the period of Russian history between Tsar Ivan the Terrible's 1565 initiation and his 1572 disbanding of a domestic policy of secret police, mass repressions, public executions, and confiscation of land from Russian aristocrats...
was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed. Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, cossacks and tartars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.
Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577 and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement. Swedish forces were besieged in Reval and central Livonia raided as far as Dünaburg
Daugavpils
Daugavpils is a city in southeastern Latvia, located on the banks of the Daugava River, from which the city gets its name. Daugavpils literally means "Daugava Castle". With a population of over 100,000, it is the second largest city in the country after the capital Riga, which is located some...
(Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius
Treaty of Vilnius (1561)
The Treaty of Vilnius or Vilna was concluded on 28 November 1561, during the Livonian War, between the Livonian Confederation and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at Vilnius...
. The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus, declared monarch of the Kingdom of Livonia
Kingdom of Livonia
The Kingdom of Livonia was a nominal state in what is now the territory of the present-day Estonia and Latvia, declared as such by Ivan IV during the Livonian War but never properly established. On June 10, 1570 the Danish Duke Magnus of Holstein arrived in Moscow where he was crowned King of Livonia...
in 1570. Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year, having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. When Kokenhusen
Koknese
Koknese is a historic town in Latvia, the administrative centre of Koknese municipality on the right bank of the Daugava River. It has a population of nearly 3,000.-History:...
(Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders. The campaign then focussed on Wenden
Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)
The Battles of Wenden were a series of battles for control of the stronghold of Wenden , in present-day Latvia, fought during the Livonian War in 1577 and 1578. Magnus of Livonia besieged the town in August 1577, but was deposed and replaced by Russian forces under tsar Ivan IV who eventually...
(Cēsis
Cesis
Cēsis , is a town in Latvia located in the northern part of the Central Vidzeme Upland. Cēsis is on the Gauja River valley, and is built on a series of ridges above the river overlooking the woods below...
, Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.
Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian alliance and counter-offensives
In 1576, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania after a contested election to the joint Polish–Lithuanian throne with the Habsburg Emperor Maximilian IIMaximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor
Maximilian II was king of Bohemia and king of the Romans from 1562, king of Hungary and Croatia from 1563, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from 1564 until his death...
. Both Batory's fiancèe Anna Jagiellon
Anna Jagiellon
Anna Jagiellon was queen of Poland from 1575 to 1586. She was the daughter of Poland's King Sigismund I the Old, and the wife of Stephen Báthory. She was elected, along with her then fiance, Báthory, as co-ruler in the second election of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth...
and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575, three days apart; Maximilan's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating. Batory, ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia, was constrained by the opposition of Danzig (Gdansk), which resisted Batory's accession with Danish support. The ensuing Danzig War
Siege of Danzig (1577)
The Siege of the city of Danzig in 1577 by king Stephen Báthory of Poland ended militarily inconclusive.The conflict begun as the city of Danzig, along with the Polish episcopate and a portion of the Polish szlachta, did not recognize the election of Bathory to the Polish throne and instead...
of 1577 ended when Batory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200,000 zloty. For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointed Hohenzollern
House of Hohenzollern
The House of Hohenzollern is a noble family and royal dynasty of electors, kings and emperors of Prussia, Germany and Romania. It originated in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century. They took their name from their ancestral home, the Burg Hohenzollern castle near...
George Frederick
George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach
George Frederick of Brandenburg-Ansbach was Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth, as well as Regent of Prussia. He was the son of George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and a member of the House of Hohenzollern...
as administrator of Prussia and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.
Swedish King John III and Stefan Batory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigimund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine had not been resolved. Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it. The 120,000 daler lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.
By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg while a Polish–Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578. Russian forces failed to retake the town in February, an attack followed by a Swedish offensive, targeting Pernau
Pärnu
Pärnu is a city in southwestern Estonia on the coast of Pärnu Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of Riga in the Baltic Sea. It is a popular summer vacation resort with many hotels, restaurants, and large beaches. The Pärnu River flows through the city and drains into the Gulf of Riga...
(Pärnu), Dorpat and Novgorod among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recaptured Oberpahlen
Põltsamaa
-External links:...
(Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden. Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish and Swedish soldiers. In the ensuing Battle of Wenden
Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)
The Battles of Wenden were a series of battles for control of the stronghold of Wenden , in present-day Latvia, fought during the Livonian War in 1577 and 1578. Magnus of Livonia besieged the town in August 1577, but was deposed and replaced by Russian forces under tsar Ivan IV who eventually...
, Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first time serious defeat in Livonia.
Batory accelerated the formation of the hussars, a new well-organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy. Similarly, he improved an already effective artillery system and recruited cossacks. Batory gathered 56,000 troops, 30,000 of them from Lithuania, for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk, as part of a wider campaign. With Ivan's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion, the city fell on 30 August 1579. Batory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court, Jan Zamoyski
Jan Zamoyski
Jan Zamoyski , was a Polish-Lithuanian nobleman, magnate, 1st duke/ordynat of Zamość. Royal Secretary since 1566, Lesser Kanclerz ) of the Crown since 1576, Lord Grand-Chancellor of the Crown since 1578, and Grand Hetman of the Crown since 1581...
, to lead a force of 48,000 including 25,000 men from Lithuania, against the fortress of Velikie Luki which he went on to capture on 5 September 1580. Without further significant resistance, garrisons such as Sokol, Velizh and Usvzat fell quickly. In 1581, the force besieged Pskov
Siege of Pskov
The Siege of Pskov, known as the Pskov Defense in Russia took place between August of 1581 and February of 1582, when the army of the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stefan Batory laid an unsuccessful siege and successful blockade of the city of Pskov during the final stage of the Livonian...
, a well-fortified and heavily defended fortress. However, financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping, and Batory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter. Not realising that the Polish–Lithuanian advance was on the wane, Ivan signed the Truce of Jam Zapolski.
The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led to Pontus de la Gardie
Pontus De la Gardie
Pontus De la Gardie was a French nobleman and general in the service of Denmark and Sweden.He was born Ponce De La Gardie in Russol , Languedoc, as a son of Jacques De la Gardie and Catherine de Sainte-Colombe. As a youngster, he wanted to become a priest and was educated in a monastery...
's appointment as commander-in-chief. The towns of Kexholm and Padis were taken by Swedish forces in 1580 then in 1581, concurrent with the fall of Wesenberg
Rakvere
Rakvere is a town in northern Estonia and the county seat of Lääne-Viru County, 20 km south of the Gulf of Finland.-History:The earliest signs of human settlement dating back to the 3rd-5th centuries AD have been found on the present theatre hill. Probably to protect that settlement, a wooden...
, a mercenary
Mercenary
A mercenary, is a person who takes part in an armed conflict based on the promise of material compensation rather than having a direct interest in, or a legal obligation to, the conflict itself. A non-conscript professional member of a regular army is not considered to be a mercenary although he...
army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva. A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland. Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres, 7,000 Russians were killed according to Russow
Balthasar Russow
Balthasar Russow was one of the most important Livonian and Estonian chroniclers.Russow was born in Reval . He was educated at an academy in Stettin in Pomerania...
's contemporary chronicle. The fall of Narva was followed by those of Ivangorod
Ivangorod
Ivangorod is a town in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, situated on the right bank of the Narva River by the Russian-Estonian border, west of St. Petersburg. Population: The town is known for the Ivangorod fortress....
, Jama
Kingisepp
Kingisepp , formerly Yamburg , Yam , and Yama , is an ancient town and the administrative center of Kingiseppsky District of Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located along the Luga Riverw west of St. Petersburg, east of Narva, and south of the Gulf of Finland...
and Koporye
Koporye
Koporye is a historic village in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located about 100 km to the west of St. Petersburg and 12 km south of the Koporye Bay of the Baltic Sea...
, leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.
Truces of Jam Zapolski and Plussa
Subsequent negotiations led by JesuitSociety of Jesus
The Society of Jesus is a Catholic male religious order that follows the teachings of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits, and are also known colloquially as "God's Army" and as "The Company," these being references to founder Ignatius of Loyola's military background and a...
papal legate
Papal legate
A papal legate – from the Latin, authentic Roman title Legatus – is a personal representative of the pope to foreign nations, or to some part of the Catholic Church. He is empowered on matters of Catholic Faith and for the settlement of ecclesiastical matters....
Antonio Possevino
Antonio Possevino
Antonio Possevino was a Jesuit protagonist of Counter Reformation as a papal diplomat and a Jesuit controversialist, encyclopedist and bibliographer...
resulted in the 1582 Truce of Jam Zapolski between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce. Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narva—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Batory's control to Russia. Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Batory. The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601. Batory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narva.
Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended in 1583 when the Tsar concluded the Truce of Plussa (Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa) with Sweden. Russia relinquished most of Ingria but left Narva and Ivangorod under Swedish control. Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590. During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.
Aftermath
The post-war Duchy of Courland and SemigalliaDuchy of Courland and Semigallia
The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia is the name of a duchy in the Baltic region that existed from 1562 to 1569 as a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and from 1569...
south of the Düna
Duna
Duna is the Soviet-Russian pop-music band that was created in 1987. It became very popular in 1989 just before the fall of the Soviet Union with the song .-Members:*Viktor "Ryba" Rybin, vocal, percussion...
(Daugava) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius, later modified by the 1617 Formula regiminis and Statuta Curlandiæ, which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense. North of the Düna, Batory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted the Duchy of Livonia
Duchy of Livonia
The Duchy of Livonia was a territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania — and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — that existed from 1561 to 1621...
, regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war. Riga's privileges had already been reduced by the Treaty of Drohiczyn
Treaty of Drohiczyn
The Treaty of Drohiczyn was concluded on 14 January 1581, during the Livonian War, between the city of Riga and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The former Free imperial city Riga was added to Polish-Lithuanian Livonia. Its freedoms and privileges were in part confirmed in the Corpus...
in 1581. Polish
Polish language
Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...
gradually replaced German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
as the administrative language and the establishment of voivodeships reduced the Baltic German
Baltic German
The Baltic Germans were mostly ethnically German inhabitants of the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, which today form the countries of Estonia and Latvia. The Baltic German population never made up more than 10% of the total. They formed the social, commercial, political and cultural élite in...
administration. The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced the counter-reformation
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
in a process assisted by Batory, who gave the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists. Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not convert en masse, while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.
In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed while the ensuing Russo-Swedish War of 1590–5 ended with the Treaty of Teusina (Tyavzino, Tyavzin), under which Sweden had to cede Ingria
Ingria
Ingria is a historical region in the eastern Baltic, now part of Russia, comprising the southern bank of the river Neva, between the Gulf of Finland, the Narva River, Lake Peipus in the west, and Lake Ladoga and the western bank of the Volkhov river in the east...
and Kexholm to Russia. The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III
Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, a monarch of the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587 to 1632, and King of Sweden from 1592 until he was deposed in 1599...
, who as son of John III of Sweden
John III of Sweden
-Family:John married his first wife, Catherine Jagellonica of Poland , house of Jagiello, in Vilnius on 4 October 1562. In Sweden, she is known as Katarina Jagellonica. She was the sister of king Sigismund II Augustus of Poland...
(died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle, Charles of Södermanland
Charles IX of Sweden
Charles IX of Sweden also Carl, was King of Sweden from 1604 until his death. He was the youngest son of King Gustav I of Sweden and his second wife, Margaret Leijonhufvud, brother of Eric XIV and John III of Sweden, and uncle of Sigismund III Vasa king of both Sweden and Poland...
(later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself. Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599 war against Sigismund
War against Sigismund
The war against Sigismund was a war between Duke Charles, later King Charles IX and Sigismund, King of Sweden and Poland. Lasting from 1598 to 1599, it is also called War of Deposition against Sigismund, since the focus of the conflicts was the attempt to depose the latter from the throne of Sweden...
, which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish riksdag
Riksdag of the Estates
The Riksdag of the Estates , was the name used for the Estates of the Swedish realm when they were assembled. Until its dissolution in 1866, the institution was the highest authority in Sweden next to the King...
.
Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporate Swedish Estonia
Swedish Estonia
The Duchy of Estonia , also known as Swedish Estonia, was a dominion of the Swedish Empire from 1561 until 1721, when it was ceded to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, following its capitulation in the Great Northern War. The dominion arose when the northern parts of present-day Estonia were united...
into the Duchy of Livonia. Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia and invaded the Livonian duchy
Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611)
-Origins:This conflict between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden can trace its roots to the War against Sigismund, where Sigismund III Vasa, at one time king of both the Commonwealth and Sweden, lost the throne of Sweden during the civil war...
, starting a series of Polish–Swedish wars
Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629)
The Polish–Swedish War was twice interrupted by periods of truce and thus can be divided into:* Polish–Swedish War * Polish–Swedish War...
. At the same time, Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ("Time of Troubles
Time of Troubles
The Time of Troubles was a period of Russian history comprising the years of interregnum between the death of the last Russian Tsar of the Rurik Dynasty, Feodor Ivanovich, in 1598, and the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613. In 1601-1603, Russia suffered a famine that killed one-third...
") when none of the many claimants had prevailed. This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides, the latter starting the Polish–Muscovite War. Charles IX's forces were expelled from Livonia after major setbacks at the battles of Kircholm
Battle of Kircholm
The Battle of Kircholm was one of the major battles in the Polish-Swedish War of 1600-1611. The battle was decided in 20 minutes by the devastating charge of Polish-Lithuanian cavalry, the Winged Hussars...
(1605) and Klushino
Battle of Klushino
The Battle of Klushino was fought on 4 July 1610, between forces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Grand Duchy of Moscow during the Polish-Muscovite War, part of Russia's Time of Troubles. The battle occurred near the village of Klushino near Smolensk...
(1610). During the later Ingrian War
Ingrian War
The Ingrian War between Sweden and Russia, which lasted between 1610 and 1617 and can be seen as part of Russia's Time of Troubles, is mainly remembered for the attempt to put a Swedish duke on the Russian throne...
, Charles' successor Gustavus Adolphus
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
Gustav II Adolf has been widely known in English by his Latinized name Gustavus Adolphus Magnus and variously in historical writings also as Gustavus, or Gustavus the Great, or Gustav Adolph the Great,...
retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617 Treaty of Stolbovo
Treaty of Stolbovo
The Treaty of Stolbovo is a peace treaty of 1617 that ended the Ingrian War, fought between Sweden and Russia.After nearly two months of negotiations, representatives from Sweden and Russia met at the village of Stolbova, south of Lake Ladoga, on 27 February 1617.From the outset, Sweden had gone...
along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia. In 1617, when Sweden had recovered from the Kalmar War
Kalmar War
The Kalmar War was a war between Denmark–Norway and Sweden. Though Denmark soon gained the upper hand, she was unable to defeat Sweden entirely...
with Denmark, several Livonian towns were captured, but only Pernau remained under Swedish control after a Polish–Lithuanian counter-offensive
Polish–Swedish War (1617–1618)
The Polish–Swedish War was a phase of the longer Polish–Swedish War of 1600 to 1629. It continued the war of 1600–1611 and was an attempt by Sweden to take Polish pressure off Russia. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was then also fighting Tartars and the Ottoman Empire...
a second campaign that started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish–Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia, where the dominion
Dominions of Sweden
The Dominions of Sweden or Svenska besittningar were territories that historically came under control of the Swedish Crown, but never became fully integrated with Sweden. This generally meant that they were ruled by Governors-General under the Swedish monarch, but within certain limits retained...
of Swedish Livonia
Swedish Livonia
- Swedish infantry and cavalry regiments:Infantry regiments:* Garnisonsregementet i Riga * Guvenörsregementet i Riga * Livländsk infanteribataljon I...
was created. Swedish forces then advanced through Royal Prussia
Royal Prussia
Royal Prussia was a Region of the Kingdom of Poland and of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth . Polish Prussia included Pomerelia, Chełmno Land , Malbork Voivodeship , Gdańsk , Toruń , and Elbląg . It is distinguished from Ducal Prussia...
and Poland–Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629 Treaty of Altmark.
The Danish province of Øsel was ceded to Sweden under the 1645 Treaty of Brömsebro, which ended the Torstenson War, one theatre of the Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was fought primarily in what is now Germany, and at various points involved most countries in Europe. It was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history....
. It was retained after the Peace of Oliva and the Treaty of Copenhagen, both in 1660. The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia
Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia
With the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 the Swedish dominions Estonia and Livonia were integrated into the Russian Empire following their conquest during the Great Northern War...
during the Great Northern War
Great Northern War
The Great Northern War was a conflict in which a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in northern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the anti-Swedish alliance were Peter I the Great of Russia, Frederick IV of...
, an action formalised in the Treaty of Nystad
Treaty of Nystad
The Treaty of Nystad was the last peace treaty of the Great Northern War. It was concluded between the Tsardom of Russia and Swedish Empire on 30 August / 10 September 1721 in the then Swedish town of Nystad , after Sweden had settled with the other parties in Stockholm and Frederiksborg.During...
(1721).
External links
- Oscar Halecki, The Struggle for the Dominium Maris Baltici
- William Urban, The Origin of the Livonian War, 1558 (Lituanus, Volume 29, No.3 – Fall 1983)
- Andres Adamson, The Role of Duke Magnus of Holstein in the Baltic Sea Region during the Livonian War (2006, dissertation)