Norway in 1814
Encyclopedia
1814 was a pivotal year in the history of Norway. It started with Norway
in a union with the Kingdom of Denmark
subject to a naval blockade being ceded to the king of Sweden
. In May a constitutional convention declared Norway an independent kingdom. By the end of the year the Norwegian parliament had agreed to join with Sweden in a personal union under the Swedish king
. Although nationalist aspirations were not to be fully realized until the events of 1905, 1814 was the crisis and turning point in events that would lead to a fully independent Norway.
The year contains the story of two ambitious future kings in Scandinavia who both may have hoped to unite Sweden, Denmark, and Norway under their throne. The Norwegian people and their leaders were caught in the middle of this rivalry, attempting through the crisis to create a measure of self-determination.
had become entangled on the French
side in the Napoleonic War through its participation in the Gunboat War
. Having lost its fleet, it was virtually defenseless as the tides turned against France. The British navy had blocked all Norwegian ports effectively from 1808, thus breaking many bonds to Denmark, and leaving Norway to itself. Under those conditions, tension grew in Norway, and a fledgling independence movement was formed in 1809. The Swedish campaign in 1809 had been averted at Kongsvinger
(battle at Trangen), something that made the Norwegians more prone to independence.
The years of 1812 and 1813 were known for severe famine
due to the blockade, and the hardships were long remembered in Norway.
. These terms were formalized and signed at the Treaty of Kiel
on January 14, in which Denmark negotiated to maintain sovereignty over the Norwegian possessions of Greenland
, the Faroe Islands
, and Iceland
. Secret correspondence from the British government in the preceding days had put pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. Bernadotte sent a letter to the governments of Prussia
, Austria
, and the United Kingdom
thanking them for their support, acknowledging the role of Russia
in negotiating the peace, and envisaging greater stability in the Nordic region.
Norwegian newspapers related the news of the Kiel Treaty less than two days later, and as there was a market in Christiania
at the same time, a local priest observed that the entire marketplace swirled with rumours of the treaty, and with tension. As news spread, it was apparent to many Norwegian intellectuals that the people would not succumb to the treaty.
On January 18, the Danish king issued a letter to the Norwegian people, releasing them from their fealty to him. The reaction came instantly.
of Norway, Hereditary Prince Christian Frederik
resolved to preserve the integrity of the country, and if possible the union with Denmark, by taking the lead in a Norwegian insurrection. The king was informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813. The prince had also been instructed to keep the union with Denmark intact, but this was not in accord with Norwegian wishes at the time. In Norway, the sentiment was that Norway had been "sold out" to Sweden, their sworn arch-enemy.
On January 24, Christian Frederik received a letter from his cousin, the king of Denmark, ordering him to surrender the border fortresses and return to Denmark. However, he kept the contents of the letter to himself, ordering his troops to hold the fortresses. He also ordered currency with the Norwegian seal to be issued, and these "prince dollars" became the first paper money issued in Norway, though the prince refused to set up a Norwegian central bank. In time, the monetary expansion led to inflation and uncertainty in the financial markets.
Christian Frederik decided to claim the throne of Norway as rightful heir, and to set up an independent government with himself at the head. The week prior to January 30, the prince toured Norway and found the same willingness to fight everywhere he came. He soon understood that he could use this sentiment to his own advantage. On January 30, he consulted several prominent Norwegian advisors, arguing that king Frederick had no legal right to relinquish his inheritance, asserting that he was the rightful king of Norway, and that Norway had a right to self-determination. His impromptu council agreed with him, setting the stage for an independence movement. After this day, the tour continued, all the way to Trondheim
and back.
On February 2, the Norwegian public learned that their country was ceded to the king of Sweden. There was growing enthusiasm for Christian Frederik's ideas for an independent Norway.
On February 8, Bernadotte responded by threatening to send an army to occupy Norway, promising a constitutional convention, and threatening a continued grain embargo against Norway if Sweden's claims under the treaty of Kiel were not met. But for the time being, he was occupied with the concluding battles on the Continent, giving the Norwegians time to take develop their plans.
On February 10, Christian Frederik invited prominent Norwegians to a meeting to be held at his friend Carsten Anker's estate in Eidsvoll to discuss the situation. He informed them of his intent to resist Swedish hegemony and claim the Norwegian crown as his inheritance. But at the emotional session in Eidsvoll on February 16, his advisors convinced him that Norway's claim to independence should rather be based on the principle of self-determination, and that he should act as a regent for the time being. The council also advised the regent to hold elections and oaths of independence all over the country, thus choosing delegates to a constitutional assembly.
Arriving in Christiania (Oslo)
on February 19, Christian Frederik proclaimed himself regent of Norway. All congregations met on February 25 to swear loyalty to the cause of Norwegian independence and to elect delegates to a constitutional assembly to commence at Eidsvoll on April 10.
On February 20, the Swedish government sent a mission to Christian Frederik, warning him that Norway's independence movement was a violation of the treaty of Kiel and put Norway at war with the victorious parties in the Napoleonic War. The consequences would be famine and bankruptcy. Christian Frederik sent letters through his personal network to governments throughout Europe, assuring them that he was not leading a Danish conspiracy to reverse the terms of the treaty of Kiel, but rather his efforts reflected the Norwegian will for self-determination. He also sought a secret accommodation with Napoleon.
The mission from the Swedish government arrived in Christiania on February 24 and met with Christian Frederik. Christian Frederik refused to accept a proclamation from the Swedish king but insisted instead on reading his letter to the Norwegian people, proclaiming himself regent. The Swedish delegation characterized his decisions as reckless and illegal, asking for leave to return to Sweden. The day after, church bells in Christiania rang for a full hour, and the city's citizens convened to swear fealty to Christian Frederik. On February 26, he initiated a long correspondence with the Swedish government.
February 25 is rememembered in some sources as "people´s day" because of the elections and the oath. That day showed forth a de facto declaration of independence for Norway. All sources remembering that day agrees on the sacred tone of the day, when all people assembled in their churches for a common cause. Bells rang from 10 am, chiming for a full hour. 4000 people assembled in the central church of Christiania
. At 11 am the regent arrived, and a service was held. Then the bishop intoned the oath: "Do you swear to claim the independence of Norway, and to dare life and blood for the beloved fatherland?" Both the regent and the congregation answered accordingly. This oath was taken in maybe 75 churches that day, and again over the country the next Sunday, and further, until the oath was taken in all the congregations of Norway.
Carsten Anker was sent to London
to negotiate recognition by the British government. Swedish authorities were canvassing border areas with pamphlets subverting the independence movement. By early March, Christian Frederik had also organized a cabinet and five government departments, though he retained all decision-making authority himself.
, the most prominent member of the Norwegian nobility, arrived in Norway on March 3 and confronted the regent, accusing him of playing a dangerous game. Christian Frederik responded by accusing Wedel-Jarlsberg of colluding with the Swedes. Returns from elections for delegates to the constitutional assembly also showed there were widespread misgivings about the independence movement. By the end of March, the opinion was openly expressed that Christian Frederik's ambition was to bring Norway back under Danish sovereignty.
Before Carsten Anker arrived in England, the British foreign secretary Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh
reimposed the naval blockade of Norway and assured the Swedish king that the British would not accept any Norwegian claims of sovereignty. A conciliatory letter sent by Christian Frederik to the Swedish king was returned unopened. On March 9, the Swedish mission to Copenhagen
demanded that Christian Frederik be disinherited from succession to the Danish throne, and that European powers should go to war with Denmark unless he disassociated herself from the Norwegian independence movement. On March 17, Niels Rosenkrantz, the Danish foreign minister, responded to the Swedish demands by asserting that the Danish government in no way supported Norwegian independence, but that they could not vacate border posts they did not hold. The demand for disinheriting Christian Frederik was not addressed.
In several letters to Hans Henrik von Essen, the commander of the Swedish military forces at Norway's borders, Bernadotte referred to Christian Frederik as a rebel who had probably been misled by the Danish nobility. He ordered his forces to treat all Danish officials who did not return home as outlaws, and all users of the "prince dollars" to be considered counterfeiters. Swedish troops amassed along the border to Norway, and there were daily rumors of an invasion.
In spite of his open opposition to Christian Frederik, Wedel-Jarlsberg was elected as a delegate to the constitutional convention on March 14. There were clear signs that the convention, only weeks away, would be contentious.
Carsten Anker arrived in London on March 24, where he met with an undersecretary of foreign affairs. The undersecretary rejected Anker's appeal for self-determination, and Anker found all other doors closed to him in London. On March 29, Christian Frederik sent Carsten Anker's brother Peder to London as an unofficial emissary. On April 3, Carsten Anker was imprisoned for three days in debtors' prison on account of an old debt, probably at the behest of the Swedish ambassador to London.
On March 31, Christian Frederik arrested officers of the naval vessels stationed in Norway as they were preparing to follow orders to bring the ships to Denmark. The ships were confiscated as ships of the Norwegian navy.
On April 1, Frederik VI sent a letter to Christian Frederik, asking him to give up his efforts and return to Denmark. The possibility of disinheriting the crown prince was mentioned in the letter. Christian Frederik rejected the overture, in the same letter invoking Norway's right to self-determination and the possibility of keeping Norway under the Danish throne. A few days later, Christian Frederik warned off a meeting with the Danish foreign minister Niels Rosenkrantz, pointing out that such a meeting would fuel speculation that the prince was motivated by Danish designs on Norway.
Although the European powers refused to acknowledge the Norwegian independence movement, there were signs by early April that they were not inclined to support Sweden in an all-out confrontation on the matter.
As time approaches for the constitutional convention, there was growing support for opposition to the treaty of Kiel, especially from Bergen.
On April 10, the constitutional convention convened for the first time, at church services in Eidsvoll. The sermon caused some stir by flattering Christian Frederik in particular and the monarchy in general. The delegates' were accredited that afternoon, after Severin Løvenskiold
had refused to give fealty to the independence movement.
Seated on uncomfortable benches, the convention elected its officers in the presence of Christian Frederik on April 11. The debates started on April 12, when Nicolai Wergeland
and Georg Sverdrup
argued over the mandate of the assembly and the basis for the regent's legitimacy. Party lines took form, with the "Independence party," variously known as the "Danish party," "the Prince's party," or "the urgent" on one side of the aisle; and the "Union Party," also known as the "western party," "Swedish party," or "the hesitant" on the other.
As it turned out, there was a clear consensus among all delegates that independence would be the ideal solution, but there was disagreement what solution was workable given real-world constraints.
A constitutional committee presented its proposals on April 16, provoking a lively debate. The Independence party won the day with a majority of 78-33 to establish Norway as an independent monarchy. There was also lively debate on the issue of military conscription, in which the upper classes argued for exemption. In the following days, mutual suspicion and distrust came to the surface within the convention. In particular, delegates disagreed on whether to give the sentiments of the European powers consideration, and some facts may have been withheld from the convention.
By April 20, the principle of the people's right to self-determination articulated by Christian Magnus Falsen
and Gunder Adler had been established as foundational for the framing of the constitution. Continued work and debate was characterized by acrimony and recrimination, but the constitutional committee made steady progress.
On May 1, the first draft of the constitution was signed by the drafting committee. In addition to the principle of the Norwegian people's right to self-determination, the constitution's key precepts included the assurance of individual freedom, the right to property, and equality.
Following a contentious debate on May 4, the assembly decided that Norway would profess itself to the Lutheran-Evangelical faith, that its monarch must always have professed himself to this faith (thereby precluding the Catholic-born Bernadotte from being a king), and that Jews and Jesuits would be barred from entering the kingdom.
On May 5, the Independence party lost another battle when the assembly voted 98 to 11 to allow the kingdom's monarch to reign over another country with the assent of two thirds of the legislative assembly's vote.
On May 7, the assembly outlawed the creation of new nobility in Norway, allowing the disposition of existing hereditary rights to be decided by a future legislative body. On May 8, proposed laws concerning naturalization and suffrage were debated. On the next day, it was decided that foreign citizens would be eligible after ten years of residency, and that the right to vote would be extended to men who were either farmers possessing their own land, civil servants, or urban property owners. With this, about half of all Norwegian men earned the right to vote, a radical proposition at the time.
On May 8, the assembly decided on a bicameral legislative body to be known as the Storting, with the expectation that one would be an upper house and the other a lower house. They also vested the right to establish and collect taxes in the legislative body. The assembly also passed the so-called "farmer's paragraph" stipulating that two-thirds of the Storting had to be elected from rural districts, and one-third from urban areas. (This paragraph remained in force until 1952).
On May 11, the assembly overwhelmingly passed universal conscription, over the objections of the financial and administrative elite, who threatened mass emigration if their sons were forced into military service.
On May 13, after two days of debate, the assembly passed a law in which the assembly guaranteed the issue of a Norwegian currency. The Union party opposed this, claiming that there simply wasn't an economic basis for an independent currency. The Independence party, carrying the day, responded that an independent currency was necessary to ensure the existence of an independent state, regardless of the financial considerations. Nevertheless, on the next day, the assembly decided to postpone the establishment of a central bank until a legislative body was in session. Christian Frederik was dismayed by this decision.
Although the final edit of the constitution
was signed on May 18, the unanimous election of Christian Frederik on May 17 is considered Constitution Day
in Norway. The election was unanimous, but several of the delegates had asked that it be postponed until the political situation had stabilized.
After the election, Georg Sverdrup, then president of the assembly, held a short speech:
It is then raised once more inside the ancient boundaries of Norway, the throne which was used by Håkon Adelstensfostre and Sverre, from where they ruled old Norway with wisdom. It is according to the wish of the entire people, that the wisdom and power that were over them, the great kings of our ancient past, also will lie over that prince which we, the free men of Norway, have chosen in gratefulness and acknowledgement, a wish that every real son of Norway surely shares with me. God save old Norway. The last sentence was then repeated by all there present.
On May 20, the assembly adjourned, joining hands and proclaiming that they would remain "in agreement and faithful until Dovre
falls!"
sounded off the royal salute, and a celebratory service was held in the cathedral. There was continuing concern about the international climate, and on May 24 the government decided to send two of the delegates from the constitutional assembly to join Carsten Anker in England to plead Norway's case.
On May 25 the first council of state convened, establishing the nation's supreme court.
On May 31, general major Johannes Klingenberg Sejersted
proposed to take a stand against invading Swedish forces at the river Glomma
, but some maintanined that the Swedes should be stopped at the border.
On June 5, the British emissary John Philip Morier arrived in Christiania on what appeared to be an unofficial visit. He accepted the hospitality of one of Christian Frederik's ministers and agreed to meet with the king himself informally, stressing that nothing he did should be construed as a recognition of Norwegian independence. It was rumoured that Morier wanted Bernadotte deposed and exiled to the Danish island of Bornholm
.
Christian Frederik asked Great Britain to mediate between Norway and Sweden, but Morier never deviated from the British rejection of an independent Norway. He offered to bring the Norwegian emissaries Niels Aall and Wilhelm Christie to England on his ship, but did not follow through on his promise. He demanded that Norway subject itself to Swedish supremacy, and also that his government's position be printed in all Norwegian newspapers. On June 10, the Norwegian army was mobilized and arms and ammunitions distributed.
On June 13, Christian Frederik also ordered a census in preparation for parliamentary elections.
On June 16, Carsten Anker sent a letter to Christian Frederik in which he made references to discussions he had recently had with a high-ranking Prussia
n diplomat. He learned that Prussia and Austria
were waning in their support of Sweden's claims to Norway, that Tsar Alexander I of Russia
(a distant cousin of Christian Frederik's) favored a Swedish-Norwegian union but not with Bernadotte as the king, and that Great Britain was looking for a solution to the problem that would keep Norway out of Russia's influence.
in Sweden to convince Christian Frederik to comply with the provisions of the treaty of Kiel. There they conferred with von Essen, who told them that 65,000 Swedish troops were ready to invade Norway. On June 30 the emissaries arrived in Christiania, where they rudely turned down Christian Frederik's hospitality. Meeting with the Norwegian council of state the following day, the Russian emissary Orlow put the choice to those present: Norway could subject itself to the Swedish crown or face war with the rest of Europe. When Christian Frederik argued that the Norwegian people had a right to determine their own destiny, the Austrian emissary August Ernst Steigentesch made the famous comment:
In the course of the negotiations, Christian Frederik offered to relinquish the throne and return to Denmark, provided the Norwegians had a say in their future through an extraordinary session in the Storting. But he refused to surrender the Norwegian border forts to Swedish troops. On 15 July the four-power delegation rejected Christian Frederik's proposal that Norway's constitution form the basis for negotiations about a union with Sweden, but promised to put the proposal to the Swedish king for consideration. The negotiations were a partial success in that the delegation left convinced that Christian Frederik was sincere and had the backing of a popular movement.
On July 20, Bernadotte sent a letter to his "cousin" Christian Frederik accusing him of intrigues and foolhardy adventurism. To add to the problems, the three Norwegians who had made their way to London were arrested, charged with carrying false passports and papers. They were deported immediately.
On July 22, Bernadotte met with the delegation that had been in Norway. They encouraged him to consider Christian Frederik's proposed terms for a union with Sweden, but the crown prince was outraged. He reiterated his ultimatum that Christian Frederik either relinquish all rights to the throne and abandon the border posts, or face war. On July 27, a Swedish naval fleet took over Hvaler
, effectively putting Sweden at war with Norway. The day after, Christian Frederik rejected the Swedish ultimatum, saying that such a surrender would constitute treason against the Norwegian people. On July 29, Swedish forces moved to invade Norway.
. The first hostilities were short and ended with decisive victories for Sweden. By August 4, the fortified city of Fredrikstad
surrendered. Christian Frederik ordered a retreat to the river Glomma
. The Swedish Army, trying to intercept the retreat, was stopped at the battle of Langnes
, an important tactical victory by the Norwegians. The Swedish assaults from the east were effectively resisted near Kongsvinger
.
On August 3 Christian Frederik announced his political will in a cabinet meeting in Moss
. On August 7 a delegation from Bernadotte arrived at the Norwegian military headquarters in Spydeberg
with a cease-fire offer that would join Norway in a union with Sweden and respect the Norwegian constitution. The day after, Christian Frederik expressed himself in favor of the terms, allowing Swedish troops to remain in positions east of Glomma. Hostilities broke out at Glomma, resulting in casualties, but the Norwegian forces were ordered to retreat. Peace negotiations with Swedish envoys began in the town of Moss
on August 10. On August 14, the negotiations concluded. The Convention of Moss
resulted in a general cease-fire based on terms that effectively were terms of peace.
Christian Frederik succeeded in excluding from the text any indication that Norway had recognized the Treaty of Kiel, and Sweden accepted that it was not to be considered a premise of the future union between the two states. Understanding the advantage of avoiding a costly war, and of letting Norway enter into a union voluntarily instead of being annexed as a conquered territory, something that, historically, the Swedes had never managed to do, Bernadotte offered favourable peace terms. He promised to recognize the Norwegian Constitution, with only those amendments that were necessary to open up for a union of the two countries. Christian Frederik agreed to call an extraordinary session of the Storting in September or October. He would then have to transfer his powers to the elected representatives of the people, who would negotiate the terms of the union with Sweden, and finally relinquish all claims to the Norwegian throne and leave the country.
On September 3, the British announced that the naval blockade of Norway was lifted. Postal service between Norway and Sweden was resumed. By September 8, prominent Norwegians were taking note of the generous terms offered by Bernadotte. The Swedish general in the occupied border regions of Norway, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna, threatened to resume hostilities if the Norwegians would not abide by the armistice agreement and willingly accept the union with Sweden. Christian Frederik was reputed to have fallen into a deep depression and was variously blamed for the battleground defeats.
In late September, a dispute arose between Swedish authorities and the Norwegian council of state over the distribution of grain among the poor in Christiania. The grain was intended as a gift from the Swedish king to the Norwegians, but it became a matter of principle for the Norwegian council to avoid the appearance that Norway had a new king until the transition was formalized. Björnstjerna sent several missives threatening to resume hostilities.
On 26 September, the Norwegian general in the "northern" region of Norway, Carl Jacob Waldemar von Schmettow, vowed in Norwegian newspapers to forcibly resist any further Swedish troop movements into Norway.
were admitted only after submitting assurances that they had no loyalty to the Swedish authorities. On October 10, Christian Frederik formally abdicated according to the conditions agreed on at Moss and embarked for Denmark. Executive powers were provisionally assigned to the Storting, until the necessary amendments to the Constitution were enacted.
On October 20, with one day to spare before the cease-fire expired, the Norwegian parliament voted 72 to 5 to join Sweden in a personal union, but a motion to acknowledge Charles XIII
king of Norway failed to pass. The issue was tabled pending the necessary amendments to the Norwegian constitution. In the following days, the parliament passed several resolutions to assert as much sovereignty as possible within the union. On November 1, they voted 52 to 25 that Norway would not appoint its own consuls, a decision that would have serious consequences in 1905. On November 4, the Storting adopted the constitutional amendments that were required to allow for the union, and unanimously elected Charles XIII king of Norway, rather than acknowledging him as such.
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
in a union with the Kingdom of Denmark
Kingdom of Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark or the Danish Realm , is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting of Denmark proper in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. Denmark is the hegemonial part, where the...
subject to a naval blockade being ceded to the king of Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
. In May a constitutional convention declared Norway an independent kingdom. By the end of the year the Norwegian parliament had agreed to join with Sweden in a personal union under the Swedish king
Union between Sweden and Norway
The Union between Sweden and Norway , officially the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, consisted of present-day Sweden and Norway between 1814 and 1905, when they were united under one monarch in a personal union....
. Although nationalist aspirations were not to be fully realized until the events of 1905, 1814 was the crisis and turning point in events that would lead to a fully independent Norway.
The year contains the story of two ambitious future kings in Scandinavia who both may have hoped to unite Sweden, Denmark, and Norway under their throne. The Norwegian people and their leaders were caught in the middle of this rivalry, attempting through the crisis to create a measure of self-determination.
Prior to 1814
Denmark–NorwayDenmark–Norway
Denmark–Norway is the historiographical name for a former political entity consisting of the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, including the originally Norwegian dependencies of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands...
had become entangled on the French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
side in the Napoleonic War through its participation in the Gunboat War
Gunboat War
The Gunboat War was the naval conflict between Denmark–Norway and the British Navy during the Napoleonic Wars. The war's name is derived from the Danish tactic of employing small gunboats against the conventional Royal Navy...
. Having lost its fleet, it was virtually defenseless as the tides turned against France. The British navy had blocked all Norwegian ports effectively from 1808, thus breaking many bonds to Denmark, and leaving Norway to itself. Under those conditions, tension grew in Norway, and a fledgling independence movement was formed in 1809. The Swedish campaign in 1809 had been averted at Kongsvinger
Kongsvinger
is a town and is a municipality in Hedmark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Glåmdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Kongsvinger....
(battle at Trangen), something that made the Norwegians more prone to independence.
The years of 1812 and 1813 were known for severe famine
Famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including crop failure, overpopulation, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every continent in the world has...
due to the blockade, and the hardships were long remembered in Norway.
Frederick VI's release of Norway
On January 7, 1814, about to be overrun by Swedish, Russian, and German troops under the command of the elected crown prince of Sweden, Jean Baptiste Jules (Carl Johan) Bernadotte, king Frederick VI of Denmark agreed to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in order to avoid an occupation of JutlandJutland
Jutland , historically also called Cimbria, is the name of the peninsula that juts out in Northern Europe toward the rest of Scandinavia, forming the mainland part of Denmark. It has the North Sea to its west, Kattegat and Skagerrak to its north, the Baltic Sea to its east, and the Danish–German...
. These terms were formalized and signed at the Treaty of Kiel
Treaty of Kiel
The Treaty of Kiel or Peace of Kiel was concluded between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Sweden on one side and the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway on the other side on 14 January 1814 in Kiel...
on January 14, in which Denmark negotiated to maintain sovereignty over the Norwegian possessions of Greenland
Greenland
Greenland is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for...
, the Faroe Islands
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands are an island group situated between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately halfway between Scotland and Iceland. The Faroe Islands are a self-governing territory within the Kingdom of Denmark, along with Denmark proper and Greenland...
, and Iceland
Iceland
Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population...
. Secret correspondence from the British government in the preceding days had put pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. Bernadotte sent a letter to the governments of Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
, Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, and the United Kingdom
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
thanking them for their support, acknowledging the role of Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
in negotiating the peace, and envisaging greater stability in the Nordic region.
Norwegian newspapers related the news of the Kiel Treaty less than two days later, and as there was a market in Christiania
Oslo
Oslo is a municipality, as well as the capital and most populous city in Norway. As a municipality , it was established on 1 January 1838. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III of Norway, the city was largely destroyed by fire in 1624. The city was moved under the reign of Denmark–Norway's King...
at the same time, a local priest observed that the entire marketplace swirled with rumours of the treaty, and with tension. As news spread, it was apparent to many Norwegian intellectuals that the people would not succumb to the treaty.
On January 18, the Danish king issued a letter to the Norwegian people, releasing them from their fealty to him. The reaction came instantly.
Attempted reclamation by Hereditary Prince Frederik
Already in Norway, the viceroyViceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
of Norway, Hereditary Prince Christian Frederik
Christian VIII of Denmark
Christian VIII , was king of Denmark from 1839 to 1848 and, as Christian Frederick, king of Norway in 1814. He was the eldest son of Hereditary Prince Frederick of Denmark and Norway and Sophia Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, born in 1786 at Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen...
resolved to preserve the integrity of the country, and if possible the union with Denmark, by taking the lead in a Norwegian insurrection. The king was informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813. The prince had also been instructed to keep the union with Denmark intact, but this was not in accord with Norwegian wishes at the time. In Norway, the sentiment was that Norway had been "sold out" to Sweden, their sworn arch-enemy.
On January 24, Christian Frederik received a letter from his cousin, the king of Denmark, ordering him to surrender the border fortresses and return to Denmark. However, he kept the contents of the letter to himself, ordering his troops to hold the fortresses. He also ordered currency with the Norwegian seal to be issued, and these "prince dollars" became the first paper money issued in Norway, though the prince refused to set up a Norwegian central bank. In time, the monetary expansion led to inflation and uncertainty in the financial markets.
Christian Frederik decided to claim the throne of Norway as rightful heir, and to set up an independent government with himself at the head. The week prior to January 30, the prince toured Norway and found the same willingness to fight everywhere he came. He soon understood that he could use this sentiment to his own advantage. On January 30, he consulted several prominent Norwegian advisors, arguing that king Frederick had no legal right to relinquish his inheritance, asserting that he was the rightful king of Norway, and that Norway had a right to self-determination. His impromptu council agreed with him, setting the stage for an independence movement. After this day, the tour continued, all the way to Trondheim
Trondheim
Trondheim , historically, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. With a population of 173,486, it is the third most populous municipality and city in the country, although the fourth largest metropolitan area. It is the administrative centre of...
and back.
On February 2, the Norwegian public learned that their country was ceded to the king of Sweden. There was growing enthusiasm for Christian Frederik's ideas for an independent Norway.
On February 8, Bernadotte responded by threatening to send an army to occupy Norway, promising a constitutional convention, and threatening a continued grain embargo against Norway if Sweden's claims under the treaty of Kiel were not met. But for the time being, he was occupied with the concluding battles on the Continent, giving the Norwegians time to take develop their plans.
The independence movement solidifies and is threatened by war
Arriving in Christiania (Oslo)
Oslo
Oslo is a municipality, as well as the capital and most populous city in Norway. As a municipality , it was established on 1 January 1838. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III of Norway, the city was largely destroyed by fire in 1624. The city was moved under the reign of Denmark–Norway's King...
on February 19, Christian Frederik proclaimed himself regent of Norway. All congregations met on February 25 to swear loyalty to the cause of Norwegian independence and to elect delegates to a constitutional assembly to commence at Eidsvoll on April 10.
On February 20, the Swedish government sent a mission to Christian Frederik, warning him that Norway's independence movement was a violation of the treaty of Kiel and put Norway at war with the victorious parties in the Napoleonic War. The consequences would be famine and bankruptcy. Christian Frederik sent letters through his personal network to governments throughout Europe, assuring them that he was not leading a Danish conspiracy to reverse the terms of the treaty of Kiel, but rather his efforts reflected the Norwegian will for self-determination. He also sought a secret accommodation with Napoleon.
The mission from the Swedish government arrived in Christiania on February 24 and met with Christian Frederik. Christian Frederik refused to accept a proclamation from the Swedish king but insisted instead on reading his letter to the Norwegian people, proclaiming himself regent. The Swedish delegation characterized his decisions as reckless and illegal, asking for leave to return to Sweden. The day after, church bells in Christiania rang for a full hour, and the city's citizens convened to swear fealty to Christian Frederik. On February 26, he initiated a long correspondence with the Swedish government.
February 25 is rememembered in some sources as "people´s day" because of the elections and the oath. That day showed forth a de facto declaration of independence for Norway. All sources remembering that day agrees on the sacred tone of the day, when all people assembled in their churches for a common cause. Bells rang from 10 am, chiming for a full hour. 4000 people assembled in the central church of Christiania
Oslo
Oslo is a municipality, as well as the capital and most populous city in Norway. As a municipality , it was established on 1 January 1838. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III of Norway, the city was largely destroyed by fire in 1624. The city was moved under the reign of Denmark–Norway's King...
. At 11 am the regent arrived, and a service was held. Then the bishop intoned the oath: "Do you swear to claim the independence of Norway, and to dare life and blood for the beloved fatherland?" Both the regent and the congregation answered accordingly. This oath was taken in maybe 75 churches that day, and again over the country the next Sunday, and further, until the oath was taken in all the congregations of Norway.
Carsten Anker was sent to London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
to negotiate recognition by the British government. Swedish authorities were canvassing border areas with pamphlets subverting the independence movement. By early March, Christian Frederik had also organized a cabinet and five government departments, though he retained all decision-making authority himself.
Christian Frederik meets increasing opposition from within and abroad
Count Wedel-JarlsbergJohan Caspar Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg
Johan Caspar Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg was a politician and a Norwegian count, one of only two titled noblemen in Norway...
, the most prominent member of the Norwegian nobility, arrived in Norway on March 3 and confronted the regent, accusing him of playing a dangerous game. Christian Frederik responded by accusing Wedel-Jarlsberg of colluding with the Swedes. Returns from elections for delegates to the constitutional assembly also showed there were widespread misgivings about the independence movement. By the end of March, the opinion was openly expressed that Christian Frederik's ambition was to bring Norway back under Danish sovereignty.
Before Carsten Anker arrived in England, the British foreign secretary Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh
Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh
Robert Stewart, 2nd Marquess of Londonderry, KG, GCH, PC, PC , usually known as Lord CastlereaghThe name Castlereagh derives from the baronies of Castlereagh and Ards, in which the manors of Newtownards and Comber were located...
reimposed the naval blockade of Norway and assured the Swedish king that the British would not accept any Norwegian claims of sovereignty. A conciliatory letter sent by Christian Frederik to the Swedish king was returned unopened. On March 9, the Swedish mission to Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...
demanded that Christian Frederik be disinherited from succession to the Danish throne, and that European powers should go to war with Denmark unless he disassociated herself from the Norwegian independence movement. On March 17, Niels Rosenkrantz, the Danish foreign minister, responded to the Swedish demands by asserting that the Danish government in no way supported Norwegian independence, but that they could not vacate border posts they did not hold. The demand for disinheriting Christian Frederik was not addressed.
In several letters to Hans Henrik von Essen, the commander of the Swedish military forces at Norway's borders, Bernadotte referred to Christian Frederik as a rebel who had probably been misled by the Danish nobility. He ordered his forces to treat all Danish officials who did not return home as outlaws, and all users of the "prince dollars" to be considered counterfeiters. Swedish troops amassed along the border to Norway, and there were daily rumors of an invasion.
In spite of his open opposition to Christian Frederik, Wedel-Jarlsberg was elected as a delegate to the constitutional convention on March 14. There were clear signs that the convention, only weeks away, would be contentious.
Carsten Anker arrived in London on March 24, where he met with an undersecretary of foreign affairs. The undersecretary rejected Anker's appeal for self-determination, and Anker found all other doors closed to him in London. On March 29, Christian Frederik sent Carsten Anker's brother Peder to London as an unofficial emissary. On April 3, Carsten Anker was imprisoned for three days in debtors' prison on account of an old debt, probably at the behest of the Swedish ambassador to London.
On March 31, Christian Frederik arrested officers of the naval vessels stationed in Norway as they were preparing to follow orders to bring the ships to Denmark. The ships were confiscated as ships of the Norwegian navy.
On April 1, Frederik VI sent a letter to Christian Frederik, asking him to give up his efforts and return to Denmark. The possibility of disinheriting the crown prince was mentioned in the letter. Christian Frederik rejected the overture, in the same letter invoking Norway's right to self-determination and the possibility of keeping Norway under the Danish throne. A few days later, Christian Frederik warned off a meeting with the Danish foreign minister Niels Rosenkrantz, pointing out that such a meeting would fuel speculation that the prince was motivated by Danish designs on Norway.
The constitutional convention
As time approaches for the constitutional convention, there was growing support for opposition to the treaty of Kiel, especially from Bergen.
On April 10, the constitutional convention convened for the first time, at church services in Eidsvoll. The sermon caused some stir by flattering Christian Frederik in particular and the monarchy in general. The delegates' were accredited that afternoon, after Severin Løvenskiold
Severin Løvenskiold
Severin Løvenskiold, the younger , was a Norwegian nobleman and a politician.-Early life:...
had refused to give fealty to the independence movement.
Seated on uncomfortable benches, the convention elected its officers in the presence of Christian Frederik on April 11. The debates started on April 12, when Nicolai Wergeland
Nicolai Wergeland
Nicolai Wergeland was a Norwegian priest, writer and politician, and a member of the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll that wrote the Constitution of Norway on 17 May 1814. He was elected as one of two delegates from Christiansand to the Eidsvoll Assembly in 1814...
and Georg Sverdrup
Georg Sverdrup
Georg Sverdrup , born Jørgen Sverdrup, was a Norwegian philologist, who is well known for being a member of Norwegian Constituent Assembly in Eidsvoll in 1814 and later the parliament. He was also responsible for building the first Norwegian university library...
argued over the mandate of the assembly and the basis for the regent's legitimacy. Party lines took form, with the "Independence party," variously known as the "Danish party," "the Prince's party," or "the urgent" on one side of the aisle; and the "Union Party," also known as the "western party," "Swedish party," or "the hesitant" on the other.
As it turned out, there was a clear consensus among all delegates that independence would be the ideal solution, but there was disagreement what solution was workable given real-world constraints.
- The Independence party had the majority and argued that the mandate of the convention was limited to formalizing Norway's independence based on the popular oath of fealty from earlier that year. With Christian Frederik as the regent, the relationship with Denmark would be negotiated within the context of Norwegian independence.
- The Union party, a minority of the delegates, believed that Norway would achieve a more independent status within a loose union with Sweden than as part of the Danish monarchy, and that the assembly should continue its work even after the constitution was complete.
A constitutional committee presented its proposals on April 16, provoking a lively debate. The Independence party won the day with a majority of 78-33 to establish Norway as an independent monarchy. There was also lively debate on the issue of military conscription, in which the upper classes argued for exemption. In the following days, mutual suspicion and distrust came to the surface within the convention. In particular, delegates disagreed on whether to give the sentiments of the European powers consideration, and some facts may have been withheld from the convention.
By April 20, the principle of the people's right to self-determination articulated by Christian Magnus Falsen
Christian Magnus Falsen
Christian Magnus Falsen was a Norwegian constitutional father, statesman, jurist, and historian. He was an important member of the constitutional assembly and was one of the writers of the constitutional laws....
and Gunder Adler had been established as foundational for the framing of the constitution. Continued work and debate was characterized by acrimony and recrimination, but the constitutional committee made steady progress.
Framing the constitution
Following a contentious debate on May 4, the assembly decided that Norway would profess itself to the Lutheran-Evangelical faith, that its monarch must always have professed himself to this faith (thereby precluding the Catholic-born Bernadotte from being a king), and that Jews and Jesuits would be barred from entering the kingdom.
On May 5, the Independence party lost another battle when the assembly voted 98 to 11 to allow the kingdom's monarch to reign over another country with the assent of two thirds of the legislative assembly's vote.
On May 7, the assembly outlawed the creation of new nobility in Norway, allowing the disposition of existing hereditary rights to be decided by a future legislative body. On May 8, proposed laws concerning naturalization and suffrage were debated. On the next day, it was decided that foreign citizens would be eligible after ten years of residency, and that the right to vote would be extended to men who were either farmers possessing their own land, civil servants, or urban property owners. With this, about half of all Norwegian men earned the right to vote, a radical proposition at the time.
On May 8, the assembly decided on a bicameral legislative body to be known as the Storting, with the expectation that one would be an upper house and the other a lower house. They also vested the right to establish and collect taxes in the legislative body. The assembly also passed the so-called "farmer's paragraph" stipulating that two-thirds of the Storting had to be elected from rural districts, and one-third from urban areas. (This paragraph remained in force until 1952).
On May 11, the assembly overwhelmingly passed universal conscription, over the objections of the financial and administrative elite, who threatened mass emigration if their sons were forced into military service.
On May 13, after two days of debate, the assembly passed a law in which the assembly guaranteed the issue of a Norwegian currency. The Union party opposed this, claiming that there simply wasn't an economic basis for an independent currency. The Independence party, carrying the day, responded that an independent currency was necessary to ensure the existence of an independent state, regardless of the financial considerations. Nevertheless, on the next day, the assembly decided to postpone the establishment of a central bank until a legislative body was in session. Christian Frederik was dismayed by this decision.
Although the final edit of the constitution
Constitution of Norway
The Constitution of Norway was first adopted on May 16, 1814 by the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll , then signed and dated May 17...
was signed on May 18, the unanimous election of Christian Frederik on May 17 is considered Constitution Day
Norwegian Constitution Day
Norwegian Constitution Day is the National Day of Norway and is an official national holiday observed on May 17 each year. Among Norwegians, the day is referred to simply as syttende mai or syttande mai , Nasjonaldagen or Grunnlovsdagen , although the latter is less frequent.- Historical...
in Norway. The election was unanimous, but several of the delegates had asked that it be postponed until the political situation had stabilized.
After the election, Georg Sverdrup, then president of the assembly, held a short speech:
It is then raised once more inside the ancient boundaries of Norway, the throne which was used by Håkon Adelstensfostre and Sverre, from where they ruled old Norway with wisdom. It is according to the wish of the entire people, that the wisdom and power that were over them, the great kings of our ancient past, also will lie over that prince which we, the free men of Norway, have chosen in gratefulness and acknowledgement, a wish that every real son of Norway surely shares with me. God save old Norway. The last sentence was then repeated by all there present.
On May 20, the assembly adjourned, joining hands and proclaiming that they would remain "in agreement and faithful until Dovre
Dovrefjell
Dovrefjell is a mountain range in central Norway that forms a natural barrier between Eastern Norway and Trøndelag, the area around Trondheim. As a result, it has been heavily trafficked during and probably preceding historical times...
falls!"
Seeking domestic and international legitimacy
On May 22, the newly elected king made a triumphant entrance into Christiania, exactly one year after he first arrived as viceroy to Norway. The cannons at Akershus FortressAkershus Fortress
Akershus Fortress or Akershus Castle is a medieval castle that was built to protect Oslo, the capital of Norway. It has also been used as a prison.- Construction :...
sounded off the royal salute, and a celebratory service was held in the cathedral. There was continuing concern about the international climate, and on May 24 the government decided to send two of the delegates from the constitutional assembly to join Carsten Anker in England to plead Norway's case.
On May 25 the first council of state convened, establishing the nation's supreme court.
On May 31, general major Johannes Klingenberg Sejersted
Johannes Klingenberg Sejersted
Johannes Klingenberg Sejersted was a Norwegian military officer.-Career:He was born in Flå, Sør-Trøndelag as a son of Lieutenant Colonel Jens Fredrik Svane Sejersted and his wife Dorothea Catharina Klingenberg. He studied at the University of Copenhagen from 1777 to 1781...
proposed to take a stand against invading Swedish forces at the river Glomma
Glomma
The Glomma or Glåma is the longest and largest river in Norway. The long river has a drainage basin that covers a full 13% of Norway's area, all in the southern part of Norway.-Geography:...
, but some maintanined that the Swedes should be stopped at the border.
On June 5, the British emissary John Philip Morier arrived in Christiania on what appeared to be an unofficial visit. He accepted the hospitality of one of Christian Frederik's ministers and agreed to meet with the king himself informally, stressing that nothing he did should be construed as a recognition of Norwegian independence. It was rumoured that Morier wanted Bernadotte deposed and exiled to the Danish island of Bornholm
Bornholm
Bornholm is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea located to the east of the rest of Denmark, the south of Sweden, and the north of Poland. The main industries on the island include fishing, arts and crafts like glass making and pottery using locally worked clay, and dairy farming. Tourism is...
.
Christian Frederik asked Great Britain to mediate between Norway and Sweden, but Morier never deviated from the British rejection of an independent Norway. He offered to bring the Norwegian emissaries Niels Aall and Wilhelm Christie to England on his ship, but did not follow through on his promise. He demanded that Norway subject itself to Swedish supremacy, and also that his government's position be printed in all Norwegian newspapers. On June 10, the Norwegian army was mobilized and arms and ammunitions distributed.
On June 13, Christian Frederik also ordered a census in preparation for parliamentary elections.
On June 16, Carsten Anker sent a letter to Christian Frederik in which he made references to discussions he had recently had with a high-ranking Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
n diplomat. He learned that Prussia and Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
were waning in their support of Sweden's claims to Norway, that Tsar Alexander I of Russia
Alexander I of Russia
Alexander I of Russia , served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian King of Poland from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland and Lithuania....
(a distant cousin of Christian Frederik's) favored a Swedish-Norwegian union but not with Bernadotte as the king, and that Great Britain was looking for a solution to the problem that would keep Norway out of Russia's influence.
Prelude to war
On June 26, emissaries from Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain arrived in VänersborgVänersborg
Vänersborg is a locality and the seat of Vänersborg Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden with 21,672 inhabitants in 2005. Until 1997 it was the capital of Älvsborg County, which was dissolved in 1998. Since 1999 Vänersborg is the seat of the regional parliament of Västra Götaland County...
in Sweden to convince Christian Frederik to comply with the provisions of the treaty of Kiel. There they conferred with von Essen, who told them that 65,000 Swedish troops were ready to invade Norway. On June 30 the emissaries arrived in Christiania, where they rudely turned down Christian Frederik's hospitality. Meeting with the Norwegian council of state the following day, the Russian emissary Orlow put the choice to those present: Norway could subject itself to the Swedish crown or face war with the rest of Europe. When Christian Frederik argued that the Norwegian people had a right to determine their own destiny, the Austrian emissary August Ernst Steigentesch made the famous comment:
- The people? What do they have to say against the will of its rulers? That would be to put the world on its head.
In the course of the negotiations, Christian Frederik offered to relinquish the throne and return to Denmark, provided the Norwegians had a say in their future through an extraordinary session in the Storting. But he refused to surrender the Norwegian border forts to Swedish troops. On 15 July the four-power delegation rejected Christian Frederik's proposal that Norway's constitution form the basis for negotiations about a union with Sweden, but promised to put the proposal to the Swedish king for consideration. The negotiations were a partial success in that the delegation left convinced that Christian Frederik was sincere and had the backing of a popular movement.
On July 20, Bernadotte sent a letter to his "cousin" Christian Frederik accusing him of intrigues and foolhardy adventurism. To add to the problems, the three Norwegians who had made their way to London were arrested, charged with carrying false passports and papers. They were deported immediately.
On July 22, Bernadotte met with the delegation that had been in Norway. They encouraged him to consider Christian Frederik's proposed terms for a union with Sweden, but the crown prince was outraged. He reiterated his ultimatum that Christian Frederik either relinquish all rights to the throne and abandon the border posts, or face war. On July 27, a Swedish naval fleet took over Hvaler
Hvaler
Hvaler is a municipality that is a group of islands in the southwestern part of Østfold county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Skjærhalden, on the island of Kirkeøy. The only police station in the municipality is located in Skjærhalden...
, effectively putting Sweden at war with Norway. The day after, Christian Frederik rejected the Swedish ultimatum, saying that such a surrender would constitute treason against the Norwegian people. On July 29, Swedish forces moved to invade Norway.
A short war with two winners
Swedish forces met with little resistance as they advanced northward into Norway, bypassing the fortress of FredrikstenFredriksten
-History:This Fortresses was constructed ny Denmark-Norway in the 17th century as a replacement for the border fortress at Bohus, which had been lost when the province of Bohuslän was ceded to Sweden by the terms of the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658...
. The first hostilities were short and ended with decisive victories for Sweden. By August 4, the fortified city of Fredrikstad
Fredrikstad
is a city and municipality in Østfold county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Fredrikstad....
surrendered. Christian Frederik ordered a retreat to the river Glomma
Glomma
The Glomma or Glåma is the longest and largest river in Norway. The long river has a drainage basin that covers a full 13% of Norway's area, all in the southern part of Norway.-Geography:...
. The Swedish Army, trying to intercept the retreat, was stopped at the battle of Langnes
Battle of Langnes
The Battle of Langnes, or the Battle of Langnes Entrenchment, was a battle fought between Norway and Sweden as a part of the Swedish-Norwegian War of 1814...
, an important tactical victory by the Norwegians. The Swedish assaults from the east were effectively resisted near Kongsvinger
Kongsvinger
is a town and is a municipality in Hedmark county, Norway. It is part of the traditional region of Glåmdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Kongsvinger....
.
On August 3 Christian Frederik announced his political will in a cabinet meeting in Moss
Moss, Norway
is a coastal city and a municipality in Østfold county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Moss. The city of Moss was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838...
. On August 7 a delegation from Bernadotte arrived at the Norwegian military headquarters in Spydeberg
Spydeberg
Spydeberg is a municipality in Østfold county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Spydeberg. It is divided into the parishes Spydeberg, Heli, and Hovin. Spydeberg was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 .The village of Spydeberg has approximately...
with a cease-fire offer that would join Norway in a union with Sweden and respect the Norwegian constitution. The day after, Christian Frederik expressed himself in favor of the terms, allowing Swedish troops to remain in positions east of Glomma. Hostilities broke out at Glomma, resulting in casualties, but the Norwegian forces were ordered to retreat. Peace negotiations with Swedish envoys began in the town of Moss
Moss
Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems...
on August 10. On August 14, the negotiations concluded. The Convention of Moss
Convention of Moss
The Convention of Moss was a cease fire agreement, signed August 14, 1814, between the Swedish King and the Norwegian Storting. It followed the Swedish-Norwegian War due to Norway's claim to sovereignty...
resulted in a general cease-fire based on terms that effectively were terms of peace.
Christian Frederik succeeded in excluding from the text any indication that Norway had recognized the Treaty of Kiel, and Sweden accepted that it was not to be considered a premise of the future union between the two states. Understanding the advantage of avoiding a costly war, and of letting Norway enter into a union voluntarily instead of being annexed as a conquered territory, something that, historically, the Swedes had never managed to do, Bernadotte offered favourable peace terms. He promised to recognize the Norwegian Constitution, with only those amendments that were necessary to open up for a union of the two countries. Christian Frederik agreed to call an extraordinary session of the Storting in September or October. He would then have to transfer his powers to the elected representatives of the people, who would negotiate the terms of the union with Sweden, and finally relinquish all claims to the Norwegian throne and leave the country.
An uneasy, but durable cease-fire
The news hit the Norwegian public hard, and reactions included anger at the "cowardice" and "treason" of the military commanders, despair over the prospects of Norwegian independence, and confusion about the country's options. Christian Frederik confirmed his willingness to abdicate the throne for "reasons of health," leaving his authority with the state council as agreed in a secret protocol at Moss. In a letter dated August 28, Christian Frederik ordered the council to accept orders from the "highest authority," clearly referring to the Swedish king. Two days later, the Swedish king proclaimed himself the ruler of both Sweden and Norway.On September 3, the British announced that the naval blockade of Norway was lifted. Postal service between Norway and Sweden was resumed. By September 8, prominent Norwegians were taking note of the generous terms offered by Bernadotte. The Swedish general in the occupied border regions of Norway, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna, threatened to resume hostilities if the Norwegians would not abide by the armistice agreement and willingly accept the union with Sweden. Christian Frederik was reputed to have fallen into a deep depression and was variously blamed for the battleground defeats.
In late September, a dispute arose between Swedish authorities and the Norwegian council of state over the distribution of grain among the poor in Christiania. The grain was intended as a gift from the Swedish king to the Norwegians, but it became a matter of principle for the Norwegian council to avoid the appearance that Norway had a new king until the transition was formalized. Björnstjerna sent several missives threatening to resume hostilities.
On 26 September, the Norwegian general in the "northern" region of Norway, Carl Jacob Waldemar von Schmettow, vowed in Norwegian newspapers to forcibly resist any further Swedish troop movements into Norway.
Easing into a new arrangement
In early October, Norwegians again refused to accept a shipment of corn from Bernadotte, and Norwegian merchants instead took up loans to purchase food and other necessities from Denmark. However, by early October, there was emerging support for a union with Sweden. On October 7, an extraordinary session of the Norwegian parliament convened. Delegates from areas occupied by Sweden in ØstfoldØstfold
is a county in southeastern Norway, bordering Akershus and southwestern Sweden , while Buskerud and Vestfold is on the other side of the bay. The seat of the county administration is Sarpsborg, and Fredrikstad is the largest city.Many manufacturing facilities are situated here. Moss and...
were admitted only after submitting assurances that they had no loyalty to the Swedish authorities. On October 10, Christian Frederik formally abdicated according to the conditions agreed on at Moss and embarked for Denmark. Executive powers were provisionally assigned to the Storting, until the necessary amendments to the Constitution were enacted.
On October 20, with one day to spare before the cease-fire expired, the Norwegian parliament voted 72 to 5 to join Sweden in a personal union, but a motion to acknowledge Charles XIII
Charles XIII of Sweden
Charles XIII & II also Carl, , was King of Sweden from 1809 and King of Norway from 1814 until his death...
king of Norway failed to pass. The issue was tabled pending the necessary amendments to the Norwegian constitution. In the following days, the parliament passed several resolutions to assert as much sovereignty as possible within the union. On November 1, they voted 52 to 25 that Norway would not appoint its own consuls, a decision that would have serious consequences in 1905. On November 4, the Storting adopted the constitutional amendments that were required to allow for the union, and unanimously elected Charles XIII king of Norway, rather than acknowledging him as such.