Not in Our Genes
Encyclopedia
Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature is a 1984 book
authored by evolutionary geneticist Richard Lewontin
, neurobiologist Steven Rose
and psychologist Leon J. Kamin in which they criticize many controversial areas of science, particularly sociobiology
, biological determinism
and the reductionism
of the gene-centric view of evolution.
"), and identifies biological determinism as the primary target of their critique. Chapters 2 to 4 comprise a history of the role of science
in relation to politics, history and culture. The authors emphasize the strong connection between science and prevailing culture
. Chapter 5 deals with the history of IQ studies, highlighting the infamous scientific fraud committed by Cyril Burt
and criticizing Twin and Adoption studies into IQ heritability.
Chapter 6 focuses on the use of science to legitimate sexist and patriarchal views of the world. Chapters 7 and 8 cover many criticisms of drug-based psychiatry, with Chapter 8 focusing on the heritability of schizophrenia
. Chapter 9 focuses on human sociobiology (now known as evolutionary psychology
) and critiques the views of biologists such as E.O. Wilson (particularly his book Sociobiology: A New Synthesis) and Richard Dawkins
. Chapter 10 establishes the fundamental principles of a truly synthetic approach to human behavior and evolution, emphasizing a "dialectic
al" integration of social studies
, psychology
, neurology
and biology
.
The preface indicates that much of the manuscript was completed by Steven Rose in consultation with Kamin and Lewontin during a stay at Harvard, and that the dialectical biology advocated by the authors was partly inspired by the "Dialectics of Biology" conference held in Brixen
, Italy, in April 1980.
Rose developed the themes of this book in a commentary in Nature
suggesting that "Dramatic advances in neuroscience
are changing and enriching our understanding of brain and behaviour. But reductionist interpretations of these advances can cause great harm."
Leon Kamin has been described as "the scientist who exposed the fraudulent data on which Cyril Burt's claims of inherited intelligence
were based", and three years prior to the publication of Not In Our Genes, Richard Lewontin emphasized the need for an in-depth re-telling of the Cyril Burt story during a review of Stephen Jay Gould
's earlier anti-determinist work, The Mismeasure of Man
. Not In Our Genes may be seen as a partial continuation of this line of thinking.
by distorting arguments in terms of genetics to "an idiotic travesty (that the properties of a complex whole are simply the sum of those same properties in the parts)", and accused the authors of giving "ideology priority over truth". Rose replied in the second edition of his book Lifelines. Rose wrote further works in this area; in 2000 he jointly edited with the sociologist Hilary Rose
, a critique of evolutionary psychology: Alas, Poor Darwin: Arguments Against Evolutionary Psychology. In 2006 he wrote a paper dismissing heritability
estimates as useful scientific measures.
A review by Richard Dawkins
in New Scientist
was particularly scathing, accusing the authors of having a "bizarre conspiracy theory
of science", accusing them of lies and idiocy, and concluding that it is a "silly, pretentious, obscurantist and mendacious book".
In his 2002 book The Blank Slate
, Steven Pinker
accused Lewontin et al. of creating a straw man
of the discipline of sociobiology and being biased by left-wing politics
.
Book
A book is a set or collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of hot lava, paper, parchment, or other materials, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a leaf or leaflet, and each side of a leaf is called a page...
authored by evolutionary geneticist Richard Lewontin
Richard Lewontin
Richard Charles "Dick" Lewontin is an American evolutionary biologist, geneticist and social commentator. A leader in developing the mathematical basis of population genetics and evolutionary theory, he pioneered the notion of using techniques from molecular biology such as gel electrophoresis to...
, neurobiologist Steven Rose
Steven Rose
Steven P. Rose is a Professor of Biology and Neurobiology at the Open University and University of London.-Life:...
and psychologist Leon J. Kamin in which they criticize many controversial areas of science, particularly sociobiology
Sociobiology
Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology,...
, biological determinism
Biological determinism
Biological determination is the interpretation of humans and human life from a strictly biological point of view, and it is closely related to genetic determinism...
and the reductionism
Reductionism
Reductionism can mean either an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts, or to simpler or more fundamental things or a philosophical position that a complex system is nothing but the sum of its parts, and that an account of it can...
of the gene-centric view of evolution.
Outline
Chapter 1 outlines what the authors saw as the cultural context of biological science at the time of writing (including the rise of the so-called "New RightNew Right
New Right is used in several countries as a descriptive term for various policies or groups that are right-wing. It has also been used to describe the emergence of Eastern European parties after the collapse of communism.-Australia:...
"), and identifies biological determinism as the primary target of their critique. Chapters 2 to 4 comprise a history of the role of science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
in relation to politics, history and culture. The authors emphasize the strong connection between science and prevailing culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
. Chapter 5 deals with the history of IQ studies, highlighting the infamous scientific fraud committed by Cyril Burt
Cyril Burt
Sir Cyril Lodowic Burt was an English educational psychologist who made contributions to educational psychology and statistics....
and criticizing Twin and Adoption studies into IQ heritability.
Chapter 6 focuses on the use of science to legitimate sexist and patriarchal views of the world. Chapters 7 and 8 cover many criticisms of drug-based psychiatry, with Chapter 8 focusing on the heritability of schizophrenia
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests itself as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social...
. Chapter 9 focuses on human sociobiology (now known as evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology is an approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional...
) and critiques the views of biologists such as E.O. Wilson (particularly his book Sociobiology: A New Synthesis) and Richard Dawkins
Richard Dawkins
Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL , known as Richard Dawkins, is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author...
. Chapter 10 establishes the fundamental principles of a truly synthetic approach to human behavior and evolution, emphasizing a "dialectic
Dialectic
Dialectic is a method of argument for resolving disagreement that has been central to Indic and European philosophy since antiquity. The word dialectic originated in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato in the Socratic dialogues...
al" integration of social studies
Social studies
Social studies is the "integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence," as defined by the American National Council for the Social Studies...
, psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
, neurology
Neurology
Neurology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue,...
and biology
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
.
The preface indicates that much of the manuscript was completed by Steven Rose in consultation with Kamin and Lewontin during a stay at Harvard, and that the dialectical biology advocated by the authors was partly inspired by the "Dialectics of Biology" conference held in Brixen
Brixen
Brixen is the name of two cities in the Alps:*Brixen, South Tyrol, Italy*Brixen im Thale, Tyrol, AustriaBrixen may also refer to:*Bishopric of Brixen, the former north-Italian state....
, Italy, in April 1980.
Rose developed the themes of this book in a commentary in Nature
Nature (journal)
Nature, first published on 4 November 1869, is ranked the world's most cited interdisciplinary scientific journal by the Science Edition of the 2010 Journal Citation Reports...
suggesting that "Dramatic advances in neuroscience
Neuroscience
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology. However, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics,...
are changing and enriching our understanding of brain and behaviour. But reductionist interpretations of these advances can cause great harm."
Leon Kamin has been described as "the scientist who exposed the fraudulent data on which Cyril Burt's claims of inherited intelligence
Inheritance of intelligence
The study of the heritability of IQ investigates the relative importance of genetics and environment for variation in intelligence quotient in a population...
were based", and three years prior to the publication of Not In Our Genes, Richard Lewontin emphasized the need for an in-depth re-telling of the Cyril Burt story during a review of Stephen Jay Gould
Stephen Jay Gould
Stephen Jay Gould was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation....
's earlier anti-determinist work, The Mismeasure of Man
The Mismeasure of Man
The Mismeasure of Man , by Stephen Jay Gould, is a history and critique of the statistical methods and cultural motivations underlying biological determinism, the belief that “the social and economic differences between human groups — primarily races, classes, and sexes — arise from inherited,...
. Not In Our Genes may be seen as a partial continuation of this line of thinking.
Main points
Recurring themes and arguments within the book include the following:- The authors emphasize that scientists are never free from biases or political and cultural influences.
- ReductionismReductionismReductionism can mean either an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts, or to simpler or more fundamental things or a philosophical position that a complex system is nothing but the sum of its parts, and that an account of it can...
and biological determinismBiological determinismBiological determination is the interpretation of humans and human life from a strictly biological point of view, and it is closely related to genetic determinism...
are intellectually linked to a range of current debates in science, including sociobiologySociobiologySociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution and attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology,...
, the gene selectionist view of evolution, drug-centred psychiatryPsychiatryPsychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of mental disorders. These mental disorders include various affective, behavioural, cognitive and perceptual abnormalities...
, and a general belief in the heritabilityHeritabilityThe Heritability of a population is the proportion of observable differences between individuals that is due to genetic differences. Factors including genetics, environment and random chance can all contribute to the variation between individuals in their observable characteristics...
of behavioral traits. - Many of these trends in science are regarded as convenient rallying points for a conservative political agenda.
- The distinction between the political aspect of scientists and the factual aspect of science is strongly emphasized, and the authors assert that while ideology may inspire determinist science, it should be judged upon the facts.
- The conflation of "population norms" with "human natureHuman natureHuman nature refers to the distinguishing characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting, that humans tend to have naturally....
" is criticized. - Twin studies are extensively critiqued, and argued to have almost universally flawed methodologies.
- Adoption studies are also critiqued, and the unusual nature of adoptive parents as a study group is emphasized.
- A reductionist strand of thought is identified and critiqued in psychology, particularly with reference to the use of drugs.
- The theoretical basis of sociobiology (now evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology is an approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional...
) is heavily critiqued and charged with reification, a reliance on "Just-So" storiesJust-so storyA just-so story, also called the ad hoc fallacy, is a term used in academic anthropology, biological sciences, social sciences, and philosophy. It describes an unverifiable and unfalsifiable narrative explanation for a cultural practice, a biological trait, or behavior of humans or other animals...
, gene-selectionism, and undue adaptationismAdaptationismAdaptationism is a set of methods in the evolutionary sciences for distinguishing the products of adaptation from traits that arise through other processes. It is employed in fields such as ethology and evolutionary psychology that are concerned with identifying adaptations...
. - A "dialectical" approach to "human nature" is encouraged, in which a wide range of fields are taken into account and integrated appropriately. They regard the "nature vs nurture" label given to the debate as misleading.
Controversies and criticism
Not in Our Genes, makes a strong statement about the entanglement of science and politics: "Science is the ultimate legitimator of bourgeois ideology", and makes the following comparison "If biological determinism is a weapon in the struggle between classes, then the universities are weapons factories, and their teaching and research faculties are the engineers, designers, and production workers. Not in our genes described Dawkins as "the most reductionist of sociobiologists". In retort, Dawkins wrote that the book practices reductionismReductionism
Reductionism can mean either an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts, or to simpler or more fundamental things or a philosophical position that a complex system is nothing but the sum of its parts, and that an account of it can...
by distorting arguments in terms of genetics to "an idiotic travesty (that the properties of a complex whole are simply the sum of those same properties in the parts)", and accused the authors of giving "ideology priority over truth". Rose replied in the second edition of his book Lifelines. Rose wrote further works in this area; in 2000 he jointly edited with the sociologist Hilary Rose
Hilary Rose (sociologist)
Hilary Rose is a prominent British feminist of sociology of science and social policy. Currently she is Visiting Research Professor of Sociology at the London School of Economics, Professor Emeritus of Social Policy at the University of Bradford and Professor Emeritus of Physick, Gresham College,...
, a critique of evolutionary psychology: Alas, Poor Darwin: Arguments Against Evolutionary Psychology. In 2006 he wrote a paper dismissing heritability
Heritability
The Heritability of a population is the proportion of observable differences between individuals that is due to genetic differences. Factors including genetics, environment and random chance can all contribute to the variation between individuals in their observable characteristics...
estimates as useful scientific measures.
A review by Richard Dawkins
Richard Dawkins
Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL , known as Richard Dawkins, is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author...
in New Scientist
New Scientist
New Scientist is a weekly non-peer-reviewed English-language international science magazine, which since 1996 has also run a website, covering recent developments in science and technology for a general audience. Founded in 1956, it is published by Reed Business Information Ltd, a subsidiary of...
was particularly scathing, accusing the authors of having a "bizarre conspiracy theory
Conspiracy theory
A conspiracy theory explains an event as being the result of an alleged plot by a covert group or organization or, more broadly, the idea that important political, social or economic events are the products of secret plots that are largely unknown to the general public.-Usage:The term "conspiracy...
of science", accusing them of lies and idiocy, and concluding that it is a "silly, pretentious, obscurantist and mendacious book".
In his 2002 book The Blank Slate
The Blank Slate
The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature is a best-selling 2002 book by Steven Pinker arguing against tabula rasa models of the social sciences. Pinker argues that human behavior is substantially shaped by evolutionary psychological adaptations...
, Steven Pinker
Steven Pinker
Steven Arthur Pinker is a Canadian-American experimental psychologist, cognitive scientist, linguist and popular science author...
accused Lewontin et al. of creating a straw man
Straw man
A straw man is a component of an argument and is an informal fallacy based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position, twisting his words or by means of [false] assumptions...
of the discipline of sociobiology and being biased by left-wing politics
Left-wing politics
In politics, Left, left-wing and leftist generally refer to support for social change to create a more egalitarian society...
.
External links
- Critical review in New ScientistNew ScientistNew Scientist is a weekly non-peer-reviewed English-language international science magazine, which since 1996 has also run a website, covering recent developments in science and technology for a general audience. Founded in 1956, it is published by Reed Business Information Ltd, a subsidiary of...
by Richard DawkinsRichard DawkinsClinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL , known as Richard Dawkins, is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and author...
. - A short favourable review