Occupation of Nicaragua
Encyclopedia
The United States occupation of Nicaragua was part of the larger conflict known as the Banana Wars. The formal occupation began in 1912, although several other operations were conducted before the full scale invasion. United States military interventions in Nicaragua
were intended to prevent the construction of the Nicaraguan Canal by any nation but the United States
. Nicaragua assumed a quasi
-protectorate
status under the 1916 Chamorro-Bryan Treaty. The occupation ended as Augusto César Sandino
, a Nicaraguan revolutionary
, led guerrilla armies against U.S. troops. The onset of the Great Depression
made it costly for the U.S. government
to maintain the occupation so a withdrawal was ordered in 1933.
faced a rebellion led by the conservative governor of the eastern municipality of Bluefields
, Juan José Estrada
. Although militarily unsuccessful, Estrada’s rebellion gained the support of the United States after Zelaya's men captured and executed two American mercenaries. Prior to this event, the U.S. had limited its military presence to one patrolling U.S. Navy ship off the coast of Bluefields, in order to protect the lives and interests of its citizens in the area. These Americans were economically supporting Estrada’s rebellion. On May 27, 1910, U.S. Marine Corps Major Smedley Butler
arrived on the coast of Nicaragua with 250 marines, for the purpose of to providing security in Bluefields. United States Secretary of State
Philander C. Knox
condemned Zelaya's actions, favoring Estrada. Zelaya succumbed to U.S. political pressure and fled the country, leaving José Madriz
as his successor. Madriz in turn had to face an advance by the reinvigorated eastern rebel forces, which ultimately led to his resignation. In August 1910, Juan Estrada became president of Nicaragua with the official recognition of the United States.
Estrada’s administration allowed President William Howard Taft
and Secretary of State Philander C. Knox to apply the Dollar Diplomacy
or "dollars for bullets" policy. The goal was to undermine European financial strength in the region, which threatened American interests to construct a canal in the isthmus, and also to protect American private investment in the development of Nicaragua's natural resources. The policy opened the door for American banks to lend money to the Nicaraguan government, ensuring United States control over the country's finances. This close relationship between the two governments continued with Estrada’s successor Adolfo Díaz
.
Díaz’s connection with the United States led to a decline in his popularity in Nicaragua. Nationalistic sentiments arose in the Nicaraguan military, including Luis Mena
, the Secretary of War. Mena managed to gain the support of the National Assembly, accusing Díaz of “selling out the nation to New York bankers.” Díaz asked the U.S. government for help, as Mena’s opposition turned into rebellion. Knox appealed to president Taft for military intervention, arguing that the Nicaraguan railway from Corinto
to Granada
was threatened, interfering with US interests.
In the summer of 1912, 100 U.S. Marines
arrived aboard the USS Annapolis
. They were followed by Smedley Butler’s return from Panama
with 350 Marines. The commander of the American forces was Admiral
William Henry Hudson Southerland
, joined by Colonel Joseph Henry Pendleton
and 750 marines. The main goal was securing the railroad from Corinto to Managua
. Butler, with around 100 men, took control of the León tract. He encountered fierce opposition from General Benjamín Zeledón, Mena's chief Lieutenant, and the region’s population, whose animosity had been inflamed by anti-American rhetoric. Butler and his men survived and cleared the tracks up to Managua. On September 22, Mena surrendered and left the country. General Zeledón, on the other hand, refused to surrender, holding Coyotepe and Barranca
. Under the command of Pendleton, Butler began the attack on Coyotepe Hill on October 2. After hitting with heavy artillery
, a combined force between Butler’s men and 600 of Pendleton’s marines took control of the hill, killing twenty-seven Nicaraguans. Zeledón was ultimately defeated in Masaya
, where the Nicaraguan Army and the American Marines neutralized the rebels.
Of the 1,100 members of the United States military that intervened in Nicaragua, thirty-seven were killed in action. With Díaz safely in the presidency of the country, the United States proceeded to withdraw the majority of its forces from Nicaraguan territory, leaving one hundred marines to "protect the American legation in Managua." The American presence in Nicaragua enforced its peace for about fifteen years, guaranteeing United States influence in the country's politics and economy.
The only American journalist who interviewed Sandino during this occupation was Carleton Beals
of The Nation
.
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
were intended to prevent the construction of the Nicaraguan Canal by any nation but the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Nicaragua assumed a quasi
Quasi
Quasi is an American indie rock band formed in Portland, Oregon in 1993 by ex-husband and wife Sam Coomes and Janet Weiss . Since 2007 the group has been a trio, following the addition of bassist Joanna Bolme.-History:In 1990 , Coomes, Weiss, and Brad Pedinov formed the band Motorgoat...
-protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
status under the 1916 Chamorro-Bryan Treaty. The occupation ended as Augusto César Sandino
Augusto César Sandino
Augusto Nicolás Calderón Sandino was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and leader of a rebellion against the U.S. military occupation of Nicaragua between 1927 and 1933...
, a Nicaraguan revolutionary
Revolutionary
A revolutionary is a person who either actively participates in, or advocates revolution. Also, when used as an adjective, the term revolutionary refers to something that has a major, sudden impact on society or on some aspect of human endeavor.-Definition:...
, led guerrilla armies against U.S. troops. The onset of the Great Depression
Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...
made it costly for the U.S. government
Federal government of the United States
The federal government of the United States is the national government of the constitutional republic of fifty states that is the United States of America. The federal government comprises three distinct branches of government: a legislative, an executive and a judiciary. These branches and...
to maintain the occupation so a withdrawal was ordered in 1933.
Occupation
In 1909, the liberal Nicaraguan president José Santos ZelayaJosé Santos Zelaya
José Santos Zelaya López was the President of Nicaragua from 25 July 1893 to 21 December 1909.-Early life:He was a son of José María Zelaya Irigoyen, born in Nicaragua, and mistress Juana López Ramírez...
faced a rebellion led by the conservative governor of the eastern municipality of Bluefields
Bluefields
Bluefields is the capital of the municipality of the same name, and of Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur in Nicaragua. It was also capital of the former Zelaya Department, which was divided into North and South Atlantic Autonomous Regions...
, Juan José Estrada
Juan José Estrada
Juan José Estrada Morales was the President of Nicaragua from 30 August 1910 to 9 May 1911.-Biography:He was a member of the Conservative Party of Nicaragua. He began a rebellion against the liberal government of José Santos Zelaya in 1909. Zelaya soon resigned, and in August 1910 the unstable...
. Although militarily unsuccessful, Estrada’s rebellion gained the support of the United States after Zelaya's men captured and executed two American mercenaries. Prior to this event, the U.S. had limited its military presence to one patrolling U.S. Navy ship off the coast of Bluefields, in order to protect the lives and interests of its citizens in the area. These Americans were economically supporting Estrada’s rebellion. On May 27, 1910, U.S. Marine Corps Major Smedley Butler
Smedley Butler
Smedley Darlington Butler was a Major General in the U.S. Marine Corps, an outspoken critic of U.S. military adventurism, and at the time of his death the most decorated Marine in U.S...
arrived on the coast of Nicaragua with 250 marines, for the purpose of to providing security in Bluefields. United States Secretary of State
United States Secretary of State
The United States Secretary of State is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with foreign affairs. The Secretary is a member of the Cabinet and the highest-ranking cabinet secretary both in line of succession and order of precedence...
Philander C. Knox
Philander C. Knox
Philander Chase Knox was an American lawyer and politician who served as United States Attorney General , a Senator from Pennsylvania and Secretary of State ....
condemned Zelaya's actions, favoring Estrada. Zelaya succumbed to U.S. political pressure and fled the country, leaving José Madriz
José Madriz
José Madriz Rodriguez was the President of Nicaragua from 21 December 1909 to 20 August 1910.Madriz was born on 21 July 1867, in León, Nicaragua. After President José Santos Zelaya resigned on December 21, 1909 in the face of an armed revolt and United States opposition, Madriz assumed the...
as his successor. Madriz in turn had to face an advance by the reinvigorated eastern rebel forces, which ultimately led to his resignation. In August 1910, Juan Estrada became president of Nicaragua with the official recognition of the United States.
Estrada’s administration allowed President William Howard Taft
William Howard Taft
William Howard Taft was the 27th President of the United States and later the tenth Chief Justice of the United States...
and Secretary of State Philander C. Knox to apply the Dollar Diplomacy
Dollar Diplomacy
Dollar Diplomacy is a term used to describe the effort of the United States—particularly under President William Howard Taft—to further its aims in Latin America and East Asia through use of its economic power by guaranteeing loans made to foreign countries. The term was originally coined by...
or "dollars for bullets" policy. The goal was to undermine European financial strength in the region, which threatened American interests to construct a canal in the isthmus, and also to protect American private investment in the development of Nicaragua's natural resources. The policy opened the door for American banks to lend money to the Nicaraguan government, ensuring United States control over the country's finances. This close relationship between the two governments continued with Estrada’s successor Adolfo Díaz
Adolfo Díaz
Adolfo Díaz Recinos was the President of Nicaragua between 9 May 1911 and 1 January 1917 and between 14 November 1926 and 1 January 1929...
.
Díaz’s connection with the United States led to a decline in his popularity in Nicaragua. Nationalistic sentiments arose in the Nicaraguan military, including Luis Mena
Luis Mena
Luis Mena Vado was the President of Nicaragua from 27 to 30 August 1910, after the fall of the government of General José Santos Zelaya. He later became acting President in rebellion. Mena was a conservative, part of the coalition government which also included liberal Juan Jose Estrada and...
, the Secretary of War. Mena managed to gain the support of the National Assembly, accusing Díaz of “selling out the nation to New York bankers.” Díaz asked the U.S. government for help, as Mena’s opposition turned into rebellion. Knox appealed to president Taft for military intervention, arguing that the Nicaraguan railway from Corinto
Corinto
Corinto may refer to any of the following:Brazil*Corinto, Minas GeraisColombia*Corinto, CaucaEl Salvador*Corinto, MorazánNicaragua*Corinto, Nicaragua...
to Granada
Granada
Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of three rivers, the Beiro, the Darro and the Genil. It sits at an elevation of 738 metres above sea...
was threatened, interfering with US interests.
In the summer of 1912, 100 U.S. Marines
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
arrived aboard the USS Annapolis
USS Annapolis (PG-10)
The first USS Annapolis was a gunboat in the United States Navy. She was named for Annapolis, Maryland.Annapolis was laid down on 18 April 1896 at Elizabethport, New Jersey, by Lewis Nixon and his shipyard superintendent, Arthur Leopold Busch; launched on 23 December 1896; sponsored by Ms...
. They were followed by Smedley Butler’s return from Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
with 350 Marines. The commander of the American forces was Admiral
Admiral (United States)
In the United States Navy, the United States Coast Guard and the United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, admiral is a four-star flag officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. Admiral ranks above vice admiral and below Fleet Admiral in the Navy; the Coast Guard and the Public Health...
William Henry Hudson Southerland
William Henry Hudson Southerland
William Henry Hudson Southerland was a rear admiral in the United States Navy. He commanded several ships in Cuban waters during the Spanish-American War, and later served as Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet....
, joined by Colonel Joseph Henry Pendleton
Joseph Henry Pendleton
Major General Joseph Henry Pendleton was a United States Marine Corps general for whom Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton is named...
and 750 marines. The main goal was securing the railroad from Corinto to Managua
Managua
Managua is the capital city of Nicaragua as well as the department and municipality by the same name. It is the largest city in Nicaragua in terms of population and geographic size. Located on the southwestern shore of Lake Xolotlán or Lake Managua, the city was declared the national capital in...
. Butler, with around 100 men, took control of the León tract. He encountered fierce opposition from General Benjamín Zeledón, Mena's chief Lieutenant, and the region’s population, whose animosity had been inflamed by anti-American rhetoric. Butler and his men survived and cleared the tracks up to Managua. On September 22, Mena surrendered and left the country. General Zeledón, on the other hand, refused to surrender, holding Coyotepe and Barranca
Barranca
-Fiction:* Las Barrancas, a fictional town in a fictional county in the computer game, Grand Theft Auto* The guide Barranca in the opening scenes of Raiders of the Lost ArkDefinition:1. A deep ravine or gorge.2...
. Under the command of Pendleton, Butler began the attack on Coyotepe Hill on October 2. After hitting with heavy artillery
Artillery
Originally applied to any group of infantry primarily armed with projectile weapons, artillery has over time become limited in meaning to refer only to those engines of war that operate by projection of munitions far beyond the range of effect of personal weapons...
, a combined force between Butler’s men and 600 of Pendleton’s marines took control of the hill, killing twenty-seven Nicaraguans. Zeledón was ultimately defeated in Masaya
Masaya
Masaya, culturally known as the City of Flowers, is the capital city of Masaya department. It is situated approximately 14 km west of Granada and 31 km southeast from Managua. The town of Masaya is situated just East of Masaya Volcano , an active volcano from which the city takes its name...
, where the Nicaraguan Army and the American Marines neutralized the rebels.
Of the 1,100 members of the United States military that intervened in Nicaragua, thirty-seven were killed in action. With Díaz safely in the presidency of the country, the United States proceeded to withdraw the majority of its forces from Nicaraguan territory, leaving one hundred marines to "protect the American legation in Managua." The American presence in Nicaragua enforced its peace for about fifteen years, guaranteeing United States influence in the country's politics and economy.
The only American journalist who interviewed Sandino during this occupation was Carleton Beals
Carleton Beals
Carleton Beals was a radical American journalist, author, historian, and a crusader with special interests in Latin America.-Early years:...
of The Nation
The Nation
The Nation is the oldest continuously published weekly magazine in the United States. The periodical, devoted to politics and culture, is self-described as "the flagship of the left." Founded on July 6, 1865, It is published by The Nation Company, L.P., at 33 Irving Place, New York City.The Nation...
.
See also
- United States-Latin American relationsUnited States-Latin American relationsDuring the Cold War era, the United States feared the spread of communism and, in some cases, overthrew democratically elected governments perceived at the time as becoming left-wing or unfriendly to U.S. interests. Examples include the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, the 1973 Chilean coup d'état and...
- History of NicaraguaHistory of NicaraguaNicaragua is the least densely populated nation in Central America, with a demographic similar in size to its smaller neighbors. It is located about midway between Mexico and Colombia, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. Nicaragua ranges from the Caribbean Sea on the...
- Overseas interventions of the United StatesOverseas interventions of the United StatesThe United States has been involved in a number of overseas interventions throughout its history.- Before the Cold War :The Barbary Wars of the 18th and early 19th centuries were the first was waged by the United States outside it's boundaries after the War of Independence...
- American imperialism