An outburst is the sudden and violent ejection of coal

Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...

, gas

Gas

Gas is one of the three classical states of matter . Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point , boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons...

 and rock from a coal face and surrounding strata in an underground coal mine

Coal mining

The goal of coal mining is to obtain coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content, and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production. In the United States,...

. When outbursts occur, they can be very serious events, possibly even resulting in multiple fatalities.

Effects of outbursts

Outbursts may range in severity from being barely noticeable, to causing the destruction of an entire mining panel, and throwing pieces of machinery weighing tens of tonnes several metres. An outburst at Tahmoor Colliery, in NSW, Australia in June 1985 involved the ejection of 350 tonnes of coal and rock and over 3000 cubic metres of gas, resulting in one fatality.http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/PARLMENT/hansArt.nsf/V3Key/LA19940412038 Another outburst at the nearby South Bulli Colliery in 1991 resulted in three fatalities, and yet another outburst at Westcliff Colliery in January 1994 involved 300 tonnes of coal and rock and resulted in one fatality.

Predisposing factors

Several factors predispose certain coal seams to being outburst-prone. These include:

• Coal seam gas content (measured in m³ per tonne) - generally, for a given coal seam gas composition, the higher the gas content, the higher the risk
• Geological structures, in particular faults, dykes
  Dike (geology)
  A dike or dyke in geology is a type of sheet intrusion referring to any geologic body that cuts discordantly across* planar wall rock structures, such as bedding or foliation...
  
   and mylonite
  Mylonite
  Mylonite is a fine-grained, compact rock produced by dynamic recrystallization of the constituent minerals resulting in a reduction of the grain size of the rock. It is classified as a metamorphic rock...
  
   (reddish brown powdered coal) zones
• Coal permeability
  Permeability (fluid)
  Permeability in fluid mechanics and the earth sciences is a measure of the ability of a porous material to allow fluids to pass through it.- Units :...
  
   (the less permeable the coal seam, the more prone to outbursts)
• Coal seam gas composition - for a given coal seam gas content (in m³ per tonne), the seam will be much more susceptible to outbursts if the coal seam gas is predominantly carbon dioxide
  Carbon dioxide
  Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
  
  , as opposed to the case where the coal seam gas is predominantly methane
  Methane
  Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is the simplest alkane, the principal component of natural gas, and probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. The relative abundance of methane makes it an attractive fuel...
  
  .
• The compressive strength
  Compressive strength
  Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand axially directed pushing forces. When the limit of compressive strength is reached, materials are crushed. Concrete can be made to have high compressive strength, e.g...
  
   of coal - high strength coal seams appear to be more prone to outbursts. This may be because low strength coal tends to deform in and around the face area as mining occurs, resulting in stress relaxation (see below).
• The stress
  Stress (physics)
  In continuum mechanics, stress is a measure of the internal forces acting within a deformable body. Quantitatively, it is a measure of the average force per unit area of a surface within the body on which internal forces act. These internal forces are a reaction to external forces applied on the body...
  
  regime at the face - high stress on and around the mining face can have the effect of closing up the cleats and pores in the coal seam. This can result in a steep coal seam gas pressure gradient into the seam, (as opposed to a low stress environment where the coal seam gas drains freely into the face area, resulting in a low seam gas pressure gradient). As mining progresses, this pressure can be violently released, resulting in an outburst.

Outburst management

Outburst management primarily focuses on the prevention of outbursts by pre-draining the gas from coal seams prior to mining. The aim of gas drainage is to lower the gas content of the seam below a certain threshold value, at which time it is considered safe to mine the seam. http://outburst.uow.edu.au/gas%20threshold%20value.html These threshold values should vary depending on the coal seam and [coal measure] being mined. Since the introduction of threshold values, not a single fatality due to an outburst has been recorded in Australia.

Gas drainage is achieved by drilling boreholes into the seam in advance of mining. Gas liberated from the seam into the boreholes is transported out of the mine via a pipe range.

Where standard gas drainage techniques are ineffectual, mine operators have a number of options. These may include:

• Remote mining - mining is carried out by remote control.
• Grunching - refers to the sequential drilling, blasting and loading out of the coal face, as opposed to the conventional mechanised method of mining.
• Induction shotfiring - using a charge (explosive) to test the face and induce an outburst if one is imminent. The explosion would have the effect of fracturing the face and relieving the stress on the face, transferring it deeper into the seam.
• Not mining that part of the seam - after all, lives are worth more than coal

Mining under "bomb squad" or outburst conditions is no longer considered acceptable, since this method still presents a fatal risk to at least one miner.
"Bomb squad" refers to a special set of operating conditions that would be adopted when it was anticipated that an outburst could occur. Under "bomb squad" conditions, the following working methods would apply:

• Minimal manning at the face - particularly during the cutting of coal, only one man at a time was allowed at the face (the continuous miner driver)
• Armoured cabins were built on continuous mining machines - these cabins were thought to be able to protect the operator in the event of an outburst. This was subsequently proven to be wrong.
• Operators wore full-face masks, connected to a compressed air supply - once again, this was ineffectual in preventing fatalities from occurring.