Parnassius
Encyclopedia
Parnassius is a genus of northern circumpolar and montane (alpine and Himalayan) butterflies
usually known as Apollos. They can vary in colour and form significantly based on their altitude. They also show an adaptation to high altitudes called altitudinal melanism. They show dark bodies and darkened colouration at the wingbase which helps them warm faster using the sun.
Although classified under the Swallowtail
butterfly family, none of the Parnassius species possess tails.
The larvae feed on species of plants belonging to the Papaveraceae
and Crassulaceae
families, and like the other swallowtail butterfly larvae, possess an osmeterium
. Unlike most butterflies that have exposed pupae, they pupate inside a loose silken cocoon.
The Parnassius butterflies also have a peculiar reproductive strategy in that the male has special accessory glands that produce a mating plug
that seals the female genitalia after mating. This is believed to ensure the success of the male and to prevent other males from mating and avoids sperm competition.
Butterflies of this genus have been widely used models to study metapopulation
s, population genetics
and gene flow
. Their patchy distribution and restricted migration makes them vulnerable to the effects of genetic drift
and considerable colour variations can exist in individuals from different regions.
Eight subgenera are recognized within the genus.
Other names that are no longer valid include
Butterfly
A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera, which includes the butterflies and moths. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly's life cycle consists of four parts: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured...
usually known as Apollos. They can vary in colour and form significantly based on their altitude. They also show an adaptation to high altitudes called altitudinal melanism. They show dark bodies and darkened colouration at the wingbase which helps them warm faster using the sun.
Although classified under the Swallowtail
Swallowtail butterfly
Swallowtail butterflies are large, colorful butterflies that form the family Papilionidae. There are over 550 species, and though the majority are tropical, members of the family are found on all continents except Antarctica...
butterfly family, none of the Parnassius species possess tails.
The larvae feed on species of plants belonging to the Papaveraceae
Papaveraceae
Papaveraceae, informally known as the poppy family, are an economically important family of 44 genera and approximately 770 species of flowering plants in the order Ranunculales. The family is cosmopolitan, occurring in temperate and subtropical climates, but almost unknown in the tropics...
and Crassulaceae
Crassulaceae
Crassulaceae, or the orpine family, are a family of dicotyledons. They store water in their succulent leaves. They are found worldwide, but mostly occur in the Northern Hemisphere and southern Africa, typically in dry and/or cold areas where water may be scarce...
families, and like the other swallowtail butterfly larvae, possess an osmeterium
Osmeterium
The osmeterium is a fleshy organ found in the prothoracic segment of larvae of Swallowtail butterflies including Birdwings. This organ emits smelly compounds believed to be pheromones. Normally hidden, this forked structure can be everted when the caterpillar is threatened, and used to emit a...
. Unlike most butterflies that have exposed pupae, they pupate inside a loose silken cocoon.
Identification and ecology
The Parnassius species of butterflies are often hard to identify and can sometimes only be identified by dissection of the genitalia. The phylogeny of the group is still under study using molecular techniques. The exact number of species within the genus is disputed and numbers range from 38 to 47.The Parnassius butterflies also have a peculiar reproductive strategy in that the male has special accessory glands that produce a mating plug
Mating plug
right|thumbnail|A mating plug in a female [[Richardson's ground squirrel]] A mating plug, also known as a copulation plug, sperm plug, vaginal plug, or sphragis, is gelatinous secretion used in the mating of some species. It is deposited by a male into a female genital tract and later hardens into...
that seals the female genitalia after mating. This is believed to ensure the success of the male and to prevent other males from mating and avoids sperm competition.
Butterflies of this genus have been widely used models to study metapopulation
Metapopulation
A metapopulation consists of a group of spatially separated populations of the same species which interact at some level. The term metapopulation was coined by Richard Levins in 1970 to describe a model of population dynamics of insect pests in agricultural fields, but the idea has been most...
s, population genetics
Population genetics
Population genetics is the study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four main evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow. It also takes into account the factors of recombination, population subdivision and population...
and gene flow
Gene flow
In population genetics, gene flow is the transfer of alleles of genes from one population to another.Migration into or out of a population may be responsible for a marked change in allele frequencies...
. Their patchy distribution and restricted migration makes them vulnerable to the effects of genetic drift
Genetic drift
Genetic drift or allelic drift is the change in the frequency of a gene variant in a population due to random sampling.The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces...
and considerable colour variations can exist in individuals from different regions.
Synonymy
A proposed phylogeny of the Parnassius and related groups.Eight subgenera are recognized within the genus.
- Driopa Korshunov, 1988. Type species: Papilio mnemosyne Linnaeus, 1758.
- Sachaia Korshunov, 1988. Type species: Parnassius tenedius Eversmann, 1851.
- Parnassius Latreille, 1804; Nouv. Dict. Hist. nat. 24 (6): 185, 199, Type Species: Papilio apollo Linnaeus.
- Tadumia Moore, [1902]; Lepidoptera Indica, 5 (53): 116, Type Species: Papilio acco Gray
- Kailasius Moore, [1902]; Lepidoptera Indica, 5 (53): 118, Type Species: Parnassius charltonius Gray
- Koramius Moore, [1902]; Lepidoptera Indica, 5 (53): 120, Type Species: Parnassius delphius Eversmann
- Lingamius Bryk, 1935; Das Tierreich 65: 538-540, Type Species: Parnassius hardwickii Gray
- Eukoramius Bryk, 1935; Das Tierreich 65: 630, 673-674, Type Species: Parnassius imperator Oberthür
Other names that are no longer valid include
- Parnassis Hübner, [1819]; Verz. bekannter Schmett. (6): 90 (or missp. or emend.?), Type Species: Papilio apollo Linnaeus
- Therius Billberg, 1820; Enum. Ins. Mus. Billb.: 75, Type Species: Papilio apollo Linnaeus
- Doritis Fabricius, 1807; Magazin f. Insektenk. (Illiger) 6: 283, Type Species: Papilio apollo Linnaeus
Important collections
- National Museum of Natural History LeidenNaturalisNaturalis is the national natural history museum of the Netherlands, based in Leiden. It originated from the merger of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie and the Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie in 1984. In 1986 it was decided that the museum had to become a public museum and a new...
, (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie) Curt EisnerCurt EisnerCurt Eisner was a German entomologist who specialised in snow butterflies or Parnassinae. His collections of Parnassinae are in Ses Naturalis, in Leiden, and his Ornithoptera and Morphidae are in the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin.-Selected works:*Parnassiana nova, XII. Kritische Revision der...
collection. Types listed in Eisner, C. Parnassiidae-Typen in der Sammlung J.C.Eisner. Leiden. E.J.Brill, 1966. 190 pp. Col.frontispiece & 84 plts.(Zool.Verh. RMNH, 81). Review of worldwide species of Parnassiidae, 719 taxaTaxon|thumb|270px|[[African elephants]] form a widely-accepted taxon, the [[genus]] LoxodontaA taxon is a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement...
included.
- Natural History MuseumNatural History MuseumThe Natural History Museum is one of three large museums on Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London, England . Its main frontage is on Cromwell Road...
Specimens largely determined by Curt Eisner Types listed in Ackery, P. R. (1973): A list of the type-specimens of Parnassius (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in the British Museum (Natural History). Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. (Ent.) 29 (1) (9.XI.1973): 1—35, 1 pl.pdf
- Ulster MuseumUlster MuseumThe Ulster Museum, located in the Botanic Gardens in Belfast, has around 8,000 square metres of public display space, featuring material from the collections of fine art and applied art, archaeology, ethnography, treasures from the Spanish Armada, local history, numismatics, industrial...
Belfast. H.M Peebles collection Type list available on CD (Nash, R and Eisner, C.)
- Muséum national d'histoire naturelleMuséum national d'histoire naturelleThe Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle is the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, France.- History :The museum was formally founded on 10 June 1793, during the French Revolution...
, Paris.Types listed by Bernardi, G.Georges BernardiGeorges Bernardi was a French entomologist, reading and speaking Russian, French and English. He was the only French representative to participate at the elaboration of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.-With Le Moult:...
, and Viette, P.Pierre ViettePierre E. L. Viette was a French entomologist. He attended university in Dijon during the German occupation of France in World War II and subsequently spent his entire career at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in Paris. He specialized in insect systematics, especially Lepidoptera...
1966. Les types et typoides de Parnassius (s.l.) se trouvant au Museum de Paris. Bull.Soc. ent. Fr. 71 95-103, 163-166. 9 229-233, 304-309.
External links
-
Wikimedia Commons has a gallery of Parnassius (see also the category). - Parnassius of the World
- Göran Waldeck Links Page
- Tree of Life
- Genus Parnassius at Lepidoptera.pro
- Type specimens at ETH
- Images with text in Japanese.
- GloBIS/Gart Checklist
- Checklist of Parnassius of China
- NSG Genetic (DNA) vouchers
- Weiss (J.-Cl.) The Parnassiinae of the World