Species in five subgenera of Plasmodium

Plasmodium

Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic protists. Infection by these organisms is known as malaria. The genus Plasmodium was described in 1885 by Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli. Currently over 200 species of this genus are recognized and new species continue to be described.Of the over 200 known...

infect bird

Bird

Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...

s - Bennettinia, Giovannolaia, Haemamoeba, Huffia and Novyella. Giovannolaia appears to be a polyphytic group and may be sudivided in the future.

Parasite listing

Species infecting birds include: P. accipiteris, P. alaudae, P. alloelongatum, P. anasum, P. ashfordi, P. bambusicolai, P. bigueti, P. bioccai, P. biziurae, P. buteonis, P. caloti, P. cathemerium, P. circumflexum, P. coggeshalli, P. coluzzii, P. corradettii, P. coturnix, P. dherteae, P. dissanaikei, P. dorsti, P. durae, P. elongatum, P. fallax, P forresteri, P. gabaldoni, P. gallinacium, P. garnhami, P. ghadirian, P. ginsburgi, P. giovannolai, P. globularis, P. griffithsi, P. gundersi, P. guangdong, P. lucens, P. hegneri, P. hermani, P. hexamerium, P. huffi, P. jiangi, P. jeanriouxi, P. juxtanucleare, P. kempi, P. lophurae, P.lutzi, P. matutinum, P. megaglobularis, P. merulae, P. mohammedi, P. multivacuolaris, P. nucleophilum, P. pachysomum, P. papernai, P. parahexamerium, P. paranucleophilum, P. parvulum, P. pediocetti, P. paddae, P. pfefferi, P. pinotti, P. polare, P. relictum, P. reniai, P. rouxi, P. sergentorum, P. snounoui, P. stellatum, P. tenue, P. tejerai, P. tumbayaensis and P. vaughani.

Avian host records

• P. accipiteris - Levant sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes)

• P. alloelongatum - Levant sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes)

• P. ashfordi - great reed warblers (Acrocephalus arundinaceus),crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), siskin (Spinus spinus)

• P. bioccai - skylark (Alauda arvensis), magpie (Pica pica)

• P. bigueti - house sparrow (Passer domesticus)

• P. biziurae - musk duck (Biziura lobata)

• P. buteonis - common buzzard (Buteo buteo)

• P. cathemerium - red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus), wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), song sparrow (Melospiza melodia), Northern Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos leucopterus), cowbirds (Molothrus ater ater), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), magpies (Pica pica budsonia), bronze grackle (Quiscalus quiscula aeneus), northern cardinal (Richmondena cardinalis), canary (Serinus canaria), starling (Sturnus vulgaris), house wren (Troglodytes aedon), robin (Turdus migratorius), white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)

• P. circumflexum - sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus), red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), wood duck (Aix sponsa), canvasbacks (Aythya valisineria), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), Cape May warbler (Dendroica tigrina), gray cat bird (Dumetella carolinensis), slate colour junicao (Junico hymenalis), song sparrow (Melospiza melodia), common merganser (Mergus merganser), cowbird (Molothrus ater ater), northern cardinal (Richmondena cardinalis cardinalis), trumpeter swan (Olor buccinator), chestnut-tailed starling (Sturnus malabaricus), brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum), American robin (Turdus migratorius), juniper thrush (Turdus pilaris), wild guineafowl (Numida meleagris) and white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)

• P. dissanaikei - Ross-ringed parakeet
  Parakeet
  Parakeet is a term for any one of a large number of unrelated small to medium sized species of parrot, that generally have long tail feathers...
  
   (Psittacula krameri manillensis)

• P. dherteae - skylark (Alauda arvensis), magpie (Pica pica)

• P. dorseti - skylark (Alauda arvensis), magpie (Pica pica)

• P. durae - turkeys (Meleagris species), common peafowl (Pavo cristatus), francolins (Franoclinus leucoscepus and Franoclinus levialanti levialanti), Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), Lady Amherst pheasants (Chrysophus amherstiae)

• P. elongatum - great reed warblers (Acrocephalus arundinaceus), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), New Zealand bellbird (Anthornis melanura), bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus virginianus), bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), honeycreeper (Loxops parva), eastern screech owl (Otus asio), black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus),

• P. fallax - pygmy owl (Glaucidium passerinum), turkey
  Turkey
  Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
  
  s (Meleagris species), helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris)

• P. forresteri - eastern screech-owls (Otus asio), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), barred owls (Strix varia), bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), broad-winged hawks (Buteo platypterus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis)

• P. gabaldoni - muscovy duck (Cairina moschata), rock pigeon (Columba livia)

• P. gallinaceum - red junglefowl (Gallus gallus)

• P. garnhami - rain quail (Coturnix coromandelica)

• P. ghadiriani - skylark (Alauda arvensis), magpie (Pica pica)

• P. giovannolai - red-billed choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), blackbird (Turdus merula)

• P. globularis - yellow-whiskered greenbul (Andropadus latirostris)

• P. griffithsi - wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia)

• P. gundersi - eastern screech owl (Otus asio)

• P. guangdong - red-whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus)

• P. hegneri - common teal (Anas crecca)

• P. hermani - turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), bobwhite (Colinus virginianus)

• P. hexamerium - skylark (Alauda arvensis), magpie (Pica pica), eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis)

• P. jiangi - red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus)

• P. juxtanucleare - red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus), white eared-pheasant (Crossoptilon crossoptilon)

• P. kempi - turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), chukar (Alectoris graeca), guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), peacocks (Pavo cristatus), canary (Serinus canaria). Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and domestic geese (Anser anser) may be transiently infected.

• P. loprae - Peking duck (Anas platyrhynchos)

• P. lucens - olive sunbird (Cyanomitra (Nectarinia) olivacea)

• P. matutinum - pigeon and dove
  Dove
  Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae within the order Columbiformes, which include some 300 species of near passerines. In general terms "dove" and "pigeon" are used somewhat interchangeably...
  
   (Colubma species)

• P. megaglobularis - olive sunbird (Cyanomitra (Nectarinia) olivacea)

• P. merulae - blackbird (Turdus merula)

• P. mohammedi - house sparrow (Passer domesticus biblicus)

• P. multivacuolaris - yellow-whiskered greenbul (Andropadus latirostris)

• P. nucleophilium - great tit (Parus major), gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis)

• P. nucleophilum toucani - Swainson's toucan (Ramphastos swainsonii)

• P. octamerium - pintail whydah bird (Vidua macroura)

• P. pachysomum - tawny pipit (Anthus campestris)

• P. paddae - Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora)

• P. parahexamerium - white-tailed alethe (Alethe diademata)

• P. paranucleophilum - South American tanager
  Tanager
  The tanagers comprise the bird family Thraupidae, in the order Passeriformes. The family has an American distribution.There were traditionally about 240 species of tanagers, but the taxonomic treatment of this family's members is currently in a state of flux...
  
  

• P. parvulum - vanga
  Vanga
  The vangas are a group of little-known small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to Madagascar and the Comoros. They are usually classified as the family Vangidae. There are about 22 species, depending on taxonomy...
  
   species

• P. pedioecetii - lesser prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus), Darwin's nothura (Nothura darwinii), grouse
  Grouse
  Grouse are a group of birds from the order Galliformes. They are sometimes considered a family Tetraonidae, though the American Ornithologists' Union and many others include grouse as a subfamily Tetraoninae in the family Phasianidae...
  
  

• P. pfefferi - magpie (Pica pica)

• P. pinotti - bananaquit (Coereba flaveola), orangequit (Euneornis campestris), yellow-shouldered grassquit (Loxipasser anoxanthus), black-faced grassquit (Tiaris bicolor)

• P. polare - bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), yellow wagtails (Motacilla flava) and cliff swallows (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota

• P. relictum - skylark (Alauda arvensis), reed warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus), New Zealand bellbird (Anthornis melanura), little night owl (Athene noctua), house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus), blue quail (Coturnix chinensis), blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus), Gyr falcons (Falco rusticolus), chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio), common crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), Hawaiian honeycreeper
  Hawaiian honeycreeper
  Hawaiian honeycreepers are small, passerine birds endemic to Hawaii. Some authorities still categorize this group as a family Drepanididae, but in recent years, most authorities consider them a subfamily, Drepanidinae, of Fringillidae, the finch family...
  
  , yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava), house sparrow
  House Sparrow
  The House Sparrow is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in most parts of the world. One of about 25 species in the genus Passer, the House Sparrow occurs naturally in most of Europe, the Mediterranean region, and much of Asia...
  
   (Passer domesticus), magpie (Pica pica), red-billed choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), tree sparrow (Passer montanus), great tit (Parus major), the bearded tit (Panurus biarmicus), siskin (Spinus spinus), Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus), starling (Sturnus vulgaris), pheasant (Tragopan satyra), white-eyed thrush (Turdus jamaicensis), yellow-faced grassquit (Tiaris olivacea)

• P. rouxi - skylark (Alauda arvensis), partridge
  Partridge
  Partridges are birds in the pheasant family, Phasianidae. They are a non-migratory Old World group.These are medium-sized birds, intermediate between the larger pheasants and the smaller quails. Partridges are native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East...
  
  

• P. sergentorum - skylark (Alauda arvensis), magpie (Pica pica)

• P. snounoui - magpie (Pica pica)

• P. stellatum - spotted flycatcher (Muscicapa striata)

• P. tenue - babbler (Garrulax canorus taewanus), Pekin robin (Leiothrix lutea)

• P. tejerai - turkey (Meleagris gallopavo)

• P. tumbayaensis - thrush (Planethicus anthracinus)

• P. vaughani - warbler (Acrocephalus schoenobaenus), blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), yellow warbler (Dendroica petechia), robin (Erithacus rubecula), junco (Junco hyemalis hyemalis), red-billed leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea), bullfinch (Loxigilla violacea), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), the weaver (Ploceus cucullatus), the grackle (Quiscalus quiscula), the canary (Serinus canaria), the blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla), the pigeon (Streptopelia senegalensis), eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna), starling (Sturnus vulgaris) black-faced grassquit (Tiaris bicolor), white-eyed thrush (Turdus jamaicensis), the blackbird (Turdus merula) and American sparrows (Zonotrichia
  Zonotrichia
  Zonotrichia is a genus of five American sparrows of the family Emberizidae. Four of the species are North American, but the Rufous-collared Sparrow breeds in highlands from the extreme southeast of Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, and on Hispaniola....
  
  species).

Subspecies of avian malaria

• P. nucleophilum has at least one subspecies - P. nucleophilum toucani

• P. relictum has been divided into subspecies: P. relictum capistranoae, P. relicturn matutinum, P. relictum quentini and P. relictum relictum.

Interrelatedness

• P. durae is related to P. asanum, P. circumflexum, P. fallax, P. formosanum, P. gabaldoni, P. hegneri, P. lophrae, P. lophrae, P. pediocetti, P. pinotti, and P. polare.

• P. gallinacium is related to P. griffithsi

• P. relictum is related to P. cathemerium, P. giovannolai and P. matutinum. P. relictum may be difficult to distinguish from P. giovannolai on either morphological grounds or on the basis of host species.

• P. hexamerium is related to P. vaughni.

• P. ashfordi is related to P. vaughni.

Vectors of avian malaria

• Aedes
  Aedes
  Aedes is a genus of mosquito originally found in tropical and subtropical zones, but now found on all continents excluding Antarctica. Some species have been spread by human activity. Aedes albopictus, a most invasive species was recently spread to the New World, including the U.S., by the used...
  
  species:

• Aedes aegypti
  Aedes aegypti
  The yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti is a mosquito that can spread the dengue fever, Chikungunya and yellow fever viruses, and other diseases. The mosquito can be recognized by white markings on legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the thorax...
  
  - P. gallinacium

• Aedes hesperonotius - P. gallinacium

• Culex
  Culex
  Culex is a genus of mosquito, and is important in that several species serve as vectors of important diseases, such as West Nile virus, filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, St. Louis encephalitis and avian malaria....
  
  species:

• Culex fatigans - P. relictum

• Culex pipiens
  Culex pipiens
  Culex pipiens is a species of blood-feeding mosquito of the family Culicidae. It is a vector of some diseases, such as Japanese encephalitis, meningitis, Urticaria...
  
  - P. cathermerium, P. paddae

• Culex pipiens pipiens - P. kempi

• Culex nigripalpus - P. elongatum, P. hermani

• Culex quinquefasciatus
  Culex quinquefasciatus
  Culex quinquefasciatus is the vector oflymphatic filariasis caused by the nematode Wuchereria bancroftiin the tropics and sub tropics.-Primary vector of Lymphatic Filariasis in India:...
  
  - P. relictum

• Culex restuans - P. elongatum, P. forresteri

• Culex salinarius - P. elongatum, P. hermani

• Culex stigmatastoma - P. relictum

• Culex tarsalis - P. kempi, P. hexamerium, P. relictum

• Culiseta
  Culiseta
  Culiseta is a genus of mosquitoes. Most Culiseta are cold-adapted species which only occur in warmer climates during the colder parts of the year or at higher elevations where temperatures are low...
  
  species

• Culiseta morsitans - P. circumflexum

• Mansonia species:

• Mansionia crassipes - P. circumflexum, P. gallinacium

• Theobaldia species

• Theobaldia annulata - P. circumflexum

Notes:

Sporogeny of P. circumflexum but not transmission has been recorded in Mansonia perturbans.

Avian malaria notes

• P. relictum is known to infect over 70 bird families and 359 wild bird species so the record here should be regarded as incomplete. Additional host species can be found under the link Plasmodium relictum. It is likely that this species has been responsible for more bird extinctions than any other protist.

• P. vaughani is the second commonest species of avian malaria parasites after P. relictum.

• P. inconstans, P. irae, P. praecox, P. subpraecox and P. wasielewski have been re classified as P. relictum. P. subpraecox was described by Grassi and Feletti in 1892. P. wasielewski was described by Brumpt in 1909.

• P. elongatum infects 21 bird families and 59 species of bird. Additional host species are given under the link Plasmodium elongatum.

• P. dominicana is species known only from fossil amber. It is thought to have been a species infecting birds. It has been placed in the subgenus Nyssorhynchus
  Nyssorhynchus
  Nyssorhynchus is an extinct subgenus of the genus Plasmodium.There is one known species in this genus - Plasmodium dominicana. It was identified from Dominican amber....
  
  .

• The taxonomic status of P. corradettii (Laird, 1998) is currently regarded as dubious and may be revised.

• P. huffi may be the same species as P. nucleophilum toucani.

• P. oti is now regarded as the same species as P. hexamerium.

• There are currently 13 species recognised in the subgenus Novyella all of which are listed here.

A number of additional species have been described in birds - P. centropi, P. chloropsidis, P. gallinuae, P. herodialis, P. heroni, P. mornony, P. pericorcoti and P. ploceii - but the suggested speciation was based at least in part on the idea - 'one host - one species'. It has not been possible to reconcile the descriptions with any of the currently recognised species, and these are not currently regarded as valid species. As further investigations are made into this genus these species may be resurrected.

A species P. japonicum has been reported but this appears to be the only report of this species and should therefore be regarded of dubious validity.