Political opportunity theory, sometimes also known as the political process theory or political opportunity structure, is a theory of social movements heavily influenced by political sociology

Political sociology

Contemporary political sociology involves much more than the study of the relations between state and society . Where a typical research question in political sociology might have been: "Why do so few American citizens choose to vote?" or even, "What difference does it make if women get elected?" ...

. It argues that success or failure of social movements is primarily affected by political opportunities.

Theory

Three vital components for movement formation are:

1. ) insurgent consciousness. Certain members of society feel deprived, mistreated, and have grievances directed at a system that they perceive as unjust (see also deprivation theory). When a collective sense of injustice develops, it motivates people to become movement members. Movement activists do not choose their goals at random, its the political contexts which stress certain grievances around which movements organize.
2. ) organizational strength. Similar to the main argument of the resource mobilization theory, the argument here is that the social movement must have strong and efficient leadership and sufficient resources. The political opportunity theory has much in common with the related resource mobilization
   Resource mobilization
   Resource mobilization is a major sociological theory in the study of social movements which emerged in the 1970s. It stresses the ability of movement's members to 1) acquire resources and to 2) mobilize people towards accomplishing the movement's goals...
   
    theory, particularly when it is seen as focusing on mobilization of resources external to the movement.
3. ) political opportunities. If the existing political system to is vulnerable to a challenge, it creates an opportunity for others - like the movement members - to issue such a challenge and try to use this opportune time to push through a social change. This vulnerability can be the result of:
   1. Increasing political pluralism
   2. Decline in repression
      Political repression
      Political repression is the persecution of an individual or group for political reasons, particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing their ability to take political life of society....
      
      
   3. Division within elite
      Elite
      Elite refers to an exceptional or privileged group that wields considerable power within its sphere of influence...
      
      s (particularly when it grows to a point where some support organized opposition)
   4. Increased political enfranchisement

Political opportunity theory argues that the actions of the activists are dependent on the existence - or lack of - of a specific political opportunity. There are various definitions of political opportunity, but Meyer (2004) stresses that of Tarrow (1989):
Meyer (2004) credits Eisinger (1973) with first use of the political opportunity theory framed in such a way (traces of which, of course, go further back). Eisinger asked why in 1960s the level of riots about race and poverty varied between different places in the United States and notes that lack of visible openings for participation of repressed or discouraged dissident made riots more likely. Thus the inability to legally air grievances was the political opportunity which led to organization and mobilization of movements expressing their grievances by rioting.

Meyer (2004) in his overview of political opportunity theory noted that this broader context can affect:

• "mobilizing",
• "advancing particular claims rather than others",
• "cultivating some alliances rather than others",
• "employing particular political strategies and tactics rather than others", and
• "affecting mainstream institutional politics and policy".

A key advantage of the theory is that it explains why social movements emerge and/or increase their activity at a given time. When there are no political opportunities, simply having grievances (organizational consciousness) and resources will not be enough. Only when al three of these components are present, the movement has a chance to succeed.

Political structure vs. political opportunity

Within the structure and agency

Structure and agency

The question over the primacy of either structure or agency in human behavior is a central debate in the social sciences. In this context, "agency" refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices. "Structure", by contrast, refers to the recurrent...

 debate, actions of activists (agents) can only be understood when seen in the broader context of political opportunities (structure). The term structure has been used to characterize political opportunities in older scholarship. A political opportunity structure has been defined as the circumstances surrounding a political landscape. However, Tarrow - who has used this term in his earlier publications himself - now argues it is misleading, as most opportunities need to be perceived, and are situational, not structural. Political opportunity structures are prone to change and can alter in days (or last for decades). Demographics and socioeconomic factors create "structure" which affects political actors.

Political mediation model

One side model based on the political opportunity theory is known as the political mediation model. The political mediation model focuses on how the political context affects the strategic choices of the political actors. This model goes beyond looking at whether the movements just succeeded or failed, and analyzes other consequences, including unintentional, as well as collective benefits.

Opposite of political opportunity is a political constraint.

Criticism

Critics point out the theory ignores cultural factors

Culture

Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...

.

In response to some criticisms, Doug McAdam

Doug McAdam

Doug McAdam is Professor of Sociology at Stanford University. He is the author or co-author of over a dozen books and over fifty articles, and is widely credited as one of the pioneers of the political process model in social movement analysis. He wrote one of the first books on the theory in 1982...

, Sidney Tarrow

Sidney Tarrow

Sidney G. Tarrow is a professor of political science and sociology, known for his research in the areas of comparative politics, social movements, political parties, collective action and political sociology.-Biography:...

 and Charles Tilly

Charles Tilly

Charles Tilly was an American sociologist, political scientist, and historian who wrote on the relationship between politics and society. He was the Joseph L. Buttenwieser Professor of Social Science at Columbia University....

proposed the Dynamics of Contention research program, which focuses on identifying mechanisms to explain political opportunities, rather than relying on an abstract structure.

Further reading

• Meyer DS , Minkoff DC. 2004. Conceptualizing political opportunity. Soc. Forces.