Prajnaparamita
Encyclopedia
Prajñāpāramitā in Buddhism
, means "the Perfection of (Transcendent) Wisdom." The word Prajñāpāramitā combines the Sanskrit
words prajñā
("wisdom") with pāramitā
("perfection"). Prajñāpāramitā is a central concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism and its practice and understanding are taken to be indispensable elements of the Bodhisattva Path
. The practice of Prajñāpāramitā is elucidated and described in the genre of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, which vary widely in length and exhaustiveness. The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras suggest that all things, including oneself, appear as thoughtforms (conceptual constructs). The earliest Mahayana Sutras
were of the Prajñāpāramitā type.
, who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. The first translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā into Chinese
occurred in the 2nd century CE. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the , which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in standard literary Sanskrit. However, these findings rely on late-dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic forms.
Additionally, a number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first developed by the Caitika
subsect of the Mahāsāṃghika
s. They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra originated amongst the southern Mahāsaṃghika schools of the Āndhra
region, along the Kṛṣṇa River
. These Mahāsaṃghikas had two famous monasteries near the Amarāvati
and the Dhānyakataka, which gave their names to the schools of the Pūrvaśailas and the Aparaśailas. Each of these schools had a copy of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in prakrit
. Guang Xing also assesses the view of the Buddha given in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra as being that of the Mahāsaṃghikas. Edward Conze
estimates that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE.
(Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) to be from a very early date in the development of Prajñāpāramitā literature. The usual reason for this relative chronology which places the Vajracchedikā earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and themes. Some western scholars also believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was adapted from the earlier Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
Examining the language and phrases used in both the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Vajracchedikā, Gregory Schopen
also sees the Vajracchedikā as being earlier than the Aṣṭasāhasrikā. This view is taken in part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the Aṣṭasāhasrikā seems to represent the later or more developed position. According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an oral tradition (Vajracchedikā) to a written tradition (Aṣṭasāhasrikā).
, entitled Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā, frames a Mahāyāna view of the Prajñāpāramitā doctrines and gives a partial list of the various texts:
The titles of these eight Prajñāpāramitā texts are given according to their length. The texts may have other Sanskrit titles as well, or different variations which may be more descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles are given below.
According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (25,000 lines) and the Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (100,000 lines) have a connection with the Dharmaguptaka
sect, while the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (8000 lines) does not.
In addition to these, there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sūtras such as the Heart Sūtra
(Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya), which exists in both 14-line and 25-line versions. Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze writes, "Two of these, the Diamond Sūtra and the Heart Sūtra are in a class by themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the world of Northern Buddhism. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon."
Tāntric
versions of the Prajñāpāramitā literature were produced from the year 500 CE on. Additionally, Prajñāpāramitā terma
teachings are held by some Tibetan Buddhists
to have been conferred upon Nāgārjuna
by Nāgarāja
, King of Nāga
s, who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea.
returned to China from India with three copies of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra which he had secured from his extensive travels. Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation. Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of the disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles.
depict the Prajnaparamita personified as a goddess. The depiction of Prajnaparamita statue as a goddess is also can be found in ancient Java and Cambodian art.
buddhism took root in ancient Java
Sailendra
court in the 8th century CE. The Mahayana reverence of female buddhist deity started with the cult of Tara
enshrined in the 8th century Kalasan temple in Central Java. Some of Prajnaparamita's important functions and attributes can be traced to those of the goddess Tara. Tara and Prajnaparamita are both referred to as mothers of all Buddhas, since Buddhas are born from wisdom. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of Srivijaya
buddhist empire in Sumatra. During the reign of the third Pala king Devapala (815-854) in India, Srivijaya Maharaja Balaputra
of Sailendras also constructed one of Nalanda’s main monasteries in India itself. Thereafter manuscript editions of the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra circulating in Sumatra and Java instigated the cult of the 'Goddess of Transcendent Wisdom'. In 13th century, the tantric buddhism gained royal patronage of king Kertanegara of Singhasari
, and thereafter some of Prajnaparamita statues were produced in the region, such as the Prajnaparamita of Singhasari in East Java and Prajnaparamita of Jambi, Sumatra
. Both of East Java and Jambi Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however unfortunately Prajnaparamita of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor condition.
The statue of Prajnaparamita of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddes of transcendental wisdom. It was discovered in almost perfect condition in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple, Malang
, East Java
. Local tradition links the statue to Queen Ken Dedes
the first queen of Singhasari, probably as a deified portrayal of the queen. Another opinion links the statue with Queen Gayatri
, the consort of Kertarajasa the first king of Majapahit. The statue was discovered in 1818 or 1819 by D. Monnereau, a Dutch East Indies
official. In 1820 Monnereau gave the statue to C.G.C. Reinwardt, who later brought the statue to the Netherlands
, where it became a prized possession of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden. In January 1978, the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde returned the statue to Indonesia, where it was placed in National Museum of Indonesia
. Today the beautiful and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, Indonesian National Museum, Jakarta
.
The statue of the goddess Prajnaparamita of East Java is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art in Indonesia
. The serene expression and meditative pose and gesture suggest peace and wisdom, in contrast with rich and intricate jewelry and decorations. The goddess wears her hair high arranged in Jatamakuta crown. The goddess is in a perfect lotus meditative position sitting on a padmasana (lotus throne) on a square pedestal. The goddess performs dharmachakra-mudra (the mudra
symbolizing turning the wheel of dharma). Her left arm is placed around an utpala
(blue lotus), on top of which sits the lontar palm leaf book Prajnaparamita-sutra. The statue stands before a carved stela, and behind her head radiates a halo or aura of light to suggest a divinity that has reached the highest wisdom.
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, means "the Perfection of (Transcendent) Wisdom." The word Prajñāpāramitā combines the Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
words prajñā
Prajña
Prajñā or paññā is wisdom, understanding, discernment or cognitive acuity. Such wisdom is understood to exist in the universal flux of being and can be intuitively experienced through meditation...
("wisdom") with pāramitā
Pāramitā
Pāramitā or pāramī is "perfection" or "completeness." In Buddhism, the pāramitās refer to the perfection or culmination of certain virtues...
("perfection"). Prajñāpāramitā is a central concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism and its practice and understanding are taken to be indispensable elements of the Bodhisattva Path
Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened existence or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one for enlightenment ." The Pali term has sometimes been translated as "wisdom-being," although in modern publications, and...
. The practice of Prajñāpāramitā is elucidated and described in the genre of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, which vary widely in length and exhaustiveness. The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras suggest that all things, including oneself, appear as thoughtforms (conceptual constructs). The earliest Mahayana Sutras
Mahayana sutras
Mahāyāna sutras are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that are accepted as canonical by the various traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism. These are largely preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tibetan Buddhist canon, and in extant Sanskrit manuscripts...
were of the Prajñāpāramitā type.
Western scholars have traditionally considered the earliest sūtra in the Prajñāpāramitā class to be the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra or "Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines", which was probably put in writing in the 1st century BCE. This chronology is based on the views of Edward Conze
Edward Conze
Eberhart Julius Dietrich Conze was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.-Life and work:...
, who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. The first translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā into Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
occurred in the 2nd century CE. This text also has a corresponding version in verse format, called the , which some believe to be slightly older because it is not written in standard literary Sanskrit. However, these findings rely on late-dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic forms.
Additionally, a number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first developed by the Caitika
Caitika
The Caitika was an early Buddhist school, and was a sub-sect of the Mahāsāṃghika school. They were also known as the Caityaka sect. The Caitikas proliferated throughout the mountains of southern India, from which it derives its name....
subsect of the Mahāsāṃghika
Mahasamghika
The ' , literally the "Great Saṃgha", was one of the early Buddhist schools in ancient India.The origins of the sect of Buddhism are still extremely uncertain, and the subject of debate among scholars. One reason for the interest in the origins of the school is that their Vinaya recension appears...
s. They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra originated amongst the southern Mahāsaṃghika schools of the Āndhra
Coastal Andhra
Coastal Andhra or Kosta, is a region of India's Andhra Pradesh State. This region was part of Madras State before 1953 and Andhra State from 1953 to 1956. According to the 2011 census, it has an area of and a population of 3,41,93,868...
region, along the Kṛṣṇa River
Krishna River
The Krishna River , is one of the longest rivers in central-southern India, about . It is also referred to as Krishnaveni in its original nomenclature...
. These Mahāsaṃghikas had two famous monasteries near the Amarāvati
Amaravati
Amaravati may refer to:* Amaravati, a Pali word meaning 'Abode of the Deathless' referring to nirvana* Amaravathi, surname, see Raju surnames* Amaravathi , a 1993 Tamil language film* Amaravathi , a Telugu language film...
and the Dhānyakataka, which gave their names to the schools of the Pūrvaśailas and the Aparaśailas. Each of these schools had a copy of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in prakrit
Prakrit
Prakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
. Guang Xing also assesses the view of the Buddha given in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra as being that of the Mahāsaṃghikas. Edward Conze
Edward Conze
Eberhart Julius Dietrich Conze was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.-Life and work:...
estimates that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE.
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā
In contrast to western scholarship, Japanese scholars have traditionally considered the Diamond SūtraDiamond Sutra
The Diamond Sūtra , is a short and well-known Mahāyāna sūtra from the Prajñāpāramitā, or "Perfection of Wisdom" genre, and emphasizes the practice of non-abiding and non-attachment...
(Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) to be from a very early date in the development of Prajñāpāramitā literature. The usual reason for this relative chronology which places the Vajracchedikā earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and themes. Some western scholars also believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was adapted from the earlier Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
Examining the language and phrases used in both the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Vajracchedikā, Gregory Schopen
Gregory Schopen
Gregory Schopen is a Buddhist historian, and Professor at University of California, Los Angeles, chair of the Department of Asian Languages & Cultures.He was born in Deadwood, South Dakota....
also sees the Vajracchedikā as being earlier than the Aṣṭasāhasrikā. This view is taken in part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the Aṣṭasāhasrikā seems to represent the later or more developed position. According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis from an oral tradition (Vajracchedikā) to a written tradition (Aṣṭasāhasrikā).
Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras
An Indian commentary on the MahāyānasaṃgrahaMahayana-samgraha
' is a key work of the Yogācāra school of Buddhist philosophy, attributed to Asanga. It introduces various Yogacārā concepts such as the ālaya-vijñāna, the three natures , the fivefold path , and the fruits of enlightenment...
, entitled Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā, frames a Mahāyāna view of the Prajñāpāramitā doctrines and gives a partial list of the various texts:
The titles of these eight Prajñāpāramitā texts are given according to their length. The texts may have other Sanskrit titles as well, or different variations which may be more descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles are given below.
- Triśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 300 lines, the Diamond Sūtra, or Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
- Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 500 lines
- Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 700 lines, the bodhisattva MañjuśrīManjusriMañjuśrī is a bodhisattva associated with transcendent wisdom in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Esoteric Buddhism he is also taken as a meditational deity. The Sanskrit name Mañjuśrī can be translated as "Gentle Glory"...
's exposition of Prajñāpāramitā - Sārdhadvisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 2500 lines, from the questions of Suvikrāntavikrāmin Bodhisattva
- Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 8000 lines
- Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 18,000 lines
- Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 25,000 lines
- Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 100,000 lines, also called the Mahāprajñāpāramitā SūtraMahaprajnaparamita SutraThe Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra was an encyclopedic collection of Prajnaparamita texts, usually attributed to Nagarjuna, translated into Chinese by Xuanzang and his assistants. Alternatively, this name refers to the Large Sutra on the Perfection of Wisdom The Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra was an...
According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (25,000 lines) and the Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (100,000 lines) have a connection with the Dharmaguptaka
Dharmaguptaka
The Dharmaguptaka are one of the eighteen or twenty early Buddhist schools, depending on one's source. They are said to have originated from another sect, the Mahīśāsakas...
sect, while the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (8000 lines) does not.
In addition to these, there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sūtras such as the Heart Sūtra
Heart Sutra
The Heart Sūtra is a Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtra. Its Sanskrit name literally translates to "Heart of the Perfection of Transcendent Wisdom." The Heart Sūtra is often cited as the best known and most popular of all Buddhist scriptures.-Introduction:The Heart Sūtra is a member of the Perfection of...
(Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya), which exists in both 14-line and 25-line versions. Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze writes, "Two of these, the Diamond Sūtra and the Heart Sūtra are in a class by themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the world of Northern Buddhism. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon."
Tāntric
Tantra
Tantra , anglicised tantricism or tantrism or tantram, is the name scholars give to an inter-religious spiritual movement that arose in medieval India, expressed in scriptures ....
versions of the Prajñāpāramitā literature were produced from the year 500 CE on. Additionally, Prajñāpāramitā terma
Terma (Buddhism)
Terma are key Tibetan Buddhist and Bön teachings, which the tradition holds were originally esoterically hidden by various adepts such as Padmasambhava and his consorts in the 8th century for future discovery at auspicious times by other adepts, known as tertöns. As such, they represent a...
teachings are held by some Tibetan Buddhists
Tibetan Buddhism
Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet and certain regions of the Himalayas, including northern Nepal, Bhutan, and India . It is the state religion of Bhutan...
to have been conferred upon Nāgārjuna
Nagarjuna
Nāgārjuna was an important Buddhist teacher and philosopher. Along with his disciple Āryadeva, he is credited with founding the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism...
by Nāgarāja
Nagaraja
Nagaraja is a Sanskrit word from naga and raj meaning King of Snakes. It is applied to three main deities, Anantha , Takshak, and Vasuki. Anantha, Vasuki and Takshak are brothers, children of Kashyap and Kadru, who are the parents of all snakes...
, King of Nāga
Naga
Naga or NAGA may refer to:* Nāga, a group of serpent deities in Hindu and Buddhist mythology.-People:* Nayan / Nayar/Nair people of Kerala Society* Naga people, a diverse ethnic identity in Northeast India...
s, who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea.
Xuanzang and the Mahāprajñāpāramitā
XuanzangXuanzang
Xuanzang was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period...
returned to China from India with three copies of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra which he had secured from his extensive travels. Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE using the three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation. Xuanzang was being encouraged by a number of the disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the original of 600 fascicles.
Prajnaparamita in visual art
The Prajnaparamita is often personified as a bodhisattvadevi (female bodhisattva). Artifacts from NalandaNalanda
Nālandā is the name of an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India.The site of Nalanda is located in the Indian state of Bihar, about 55 miles south east of Patna, and was a Buddhist center of learning from the fifth or sixth century CE to 1197 CE. It has been called "one of the...
depict the Prajnaparamita personified as a goddess. The depiction of Prajnaparamita statue as a goddess is also can be found in ancient Java and Cambodian art.
Prajnaparamita in Ancient Indonesia
MahayanaMahayana
Mahāyāna is one of the two main existing branches of Buddhism and a term for classification of Buddhist philosophies and practice...
buddhism took root in ancient Java
Java
Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of 135 million , it is the world's most populous island, and one of the most densely populated regions in the world. It is home to 60% of Indonesia's population. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is in west Java...
Sailendra
Sailendra
Sailendra is the name of an influential Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th century Java.The Sailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, including the world famous Borobudur.The Sailendras are considered to be a...
court in the 8th century CE. The Mahayana reverence of female buddhist deity started with the cult of Tara
Tara (Buddhism)
Tara or Ārya Tārā, also known as Jetsun Dolma in Tibetan Buddhism, is a female Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism who appears as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is known as the "mother of liberation", and represents the virtues of success in work and achievements...
enshrined in the 8th century Kalasan temple in Central Java. Some of Prajnaparamita's important functions and attributes can be traced to those of the goddess Tara. Tara and Prajnaparamita are both referred to as mothers of all Buddhas, since Buddhas are born from wisdom. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of Srivijaya
Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6...
buddhist empire in Sumatra. During the reign of the third Pala king Devapala (815-854) in India, Srivijaya Maharaja Balaputra
Balaputra
Balaputra was the maharaja of Srivijaya in the 9th century CE as well as the former head of the Sailendra dynasty. He was the youngest son of the preceding Sailendran maharaja, Samaratunga, through marriage with Dewi Tara who was in turn the daughter of another maharaja, Dharmasetu of...
of Sailendras also constructed one of Nalanda’s main monasteries in India itself. Thereafter manuscript editions of the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra circulating in Sumatra and Java instigated the cult of the 'Goddess of Transcendent Wisdom'. In 13th century, the tantric buddhism gained royal patronage of king Kertanegara of Singhasari
Singhasari
Singhasari was a kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded Kingdom of Kediri as the dominant kingdom in eastern Java.-Foundation:...
, and thereafter some of Prajnaparamita statues were produced in the region, such as the Prajnaparamita of Singhasari in East Java and Prajnaparamita of Jambi, Sumatra
Sumatra
Sumatra is an island in western Indonesia, westernmost of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island entirely in Indonesia , and the sixth largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 with a population of 50,365,538...
. Both of East Java and Jambi Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however unfortunately Prajnaparamita of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor condition.
The statue of Prajnaparamita of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddes of transcendental wisdom. It was discovered in almost perfect condition in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple, Malang
Malang
Malang is the second largest city in East Java province, Indonesia. It has an ancient history dating back to the Mataram Kingdom. The city population at the 2010 Census was 819,708. During the period of Dutch colonization, it was a popular destination for European residents. The city is famous for...
, East Java
East Java
East Java is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the eastern part of the island of Java and includes neighboring Madura and islands to its east and to its north East Java is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the eastern part of the island of Java and includes neighboring Madura and...
. Local tradition links the statue to Queen Ken Dedes
Ken Dedes
Ken Dedes, first queen of Singhasari, was the consort of Ken Arok, the first ruler of Singhasari, Java, Indonesia. She was later considered as the origin of the lineage of kings that rule Java, the great mother of the Rajasa dynasty, the royal family that ruled Java from the Singhasari to the...
the first queen of Singhasari, probably as a deified portrayal of the queen. Another opinion links the statue with Queen Gayatri
Gayatri
Gayatri is the feminine form of , a Sanskrit word for a song or a hymn. Gayatri is a consort of Brahma and the goddess of learning. Brahma married her when there was a need for a companion during a yajna. Brahma had to start the yajna along with his wife...
, the consort of Kertarajasa the first king of Majapahit. The statue was discovered in 1818 or 1819 by D. Monnereau, a Dutch East Indies
Dutch East Indies
The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. It was formed from the nationalised colonies of the Dutch East India Company, which came under the administration of the Netherlands government in 1800....
official. In 1820 Monnereau gave the statue to C.G.C. Reinwardt, who later brought the statue to the Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, where it became a prized possession of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde in Leiden. In January 1978, the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde returned the statue to Indonesia, where it was placed in National Museum of Indonesia
National Museum of Indonesia
The National Museum of Indonesia , is an archeological, historical, ethnological, and geographical museum located in Jakarta. Popularly known as Elephant Building after the elephant statue in its forecourt. Its broad and fascinating collections covers all of Indonesia's territory and almost all of...
. Today the beautiful and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, Indonesian National Museum, Jakarta
Jakarta
Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Officially known as the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta, it is located on the northwest coast of Java, has an area of , and a population of 9,580,000. Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre...
.
The statue of the goddess Prajnaparamita of East Java is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art in Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
. The serene expression and meditative pose and gesture suggest peace and wisdom, in contrast with rich and intricate jewelry and decorations. The goddess wears her hair high arranged in Jatamakuta crown. The goddess is in a perfect lotus meditative position sitting on a padmasana (lotus throne) on a square pedestal. The goddess performs dharmachakra-mudra (the mudra
Mudra
A mudrā is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism. While some mudrās involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers...
symbolizing turning the wheel of dharma). Her left arm is placed around an utpala
Utpala
Utpala or ' is the name of a 10th century Indian commentator of Vārāha Mihira's Brihat Samhitā. Brihat Samhitā is a Samhitā text of . Samhitā is one of three branches of Utpala or ' is the name of a 10th century Indian commentator of Vārāha Mihira's Brihat Samhitā. Brihat Samhitā is a...
(blue lotus), on top of which sits the lontar palm leaf book Prajnaparamita-sutra. The statue stands before a carved stela, and behind her head radiates a halo or aura of light to suggest a divinity that has reached the highest wisdom.
Selected English translations
| Author | Title | Publisher | Notes | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 14th Dalai Lama 14th Dalai Lama The 14th Dalai Lama is the 14th and current Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years... | Essence of the Heart Sutra, ISBN 978-0861712847 | Wisdom Publications | Heart Sutra with commentary by the 14th Dalai Lama | |
| Edward Conze Edward Conze Eberhart Julius Dietrich Conze was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.-Life and work:... | The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines and its Verse Summary ISBN 81-7030-405-9 | Four Seasons Foundation | The earliest text in a strict translation | |
| Lex Hixon Lex Hixon Lex Hixon was an accomplished author, poet, and spiritual teacher. He practiced and held membership in several of the world's major great religious traditions, and documented his spiritual explorations in nine books and many articles and teachings given to various groups... | Mother of the Buddhas: Meditation on the Prajnaparamita Sutra ISBN 0-8356-0689-9 | Quest | A less strict interpretive translation of most of the version in 8,000 lines | |
| Edward Conze Edward Conze Eberhart Julius Dietrich Conze was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.-Life and work:... | The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom ISBN 0-520-05321-4 | University of California | Mostly the version in 25,000 lines, with some parts from the versions in 100,000 and 18,000 lines | |
| Edward Conze Edward Conze Eberhart Julius Dietrich Conze was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.-Life and work:... | Buddhist Wisdom Books ISBN 0-04-440259-7 | Unwin | The Heart Sutra and the Diamond Sutra with commentaries | |
| Geshe Tashi Tsering | Emptiness: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought, ISBN 978-0861715114 | Wisdom Publications | A guide to the topic of emptiness from a Tibetan Buddhist perspective, with English translation of the Heart Sutra | |
| Lopez, Donald S. http://icks.korea.ac.kr/conf/cv/donald_lopez.pdf | The Heart Sutra Explained ISBN 0-88706-590-2 | SUNY | The Heart Sutra with a summary of Indian commentaries | |
| Lopez, Donald S. http://icks.korea.ac.kr/conf/cv/donald_lopez.pdf | Elaborations on Emptiness ISBN 0-691-00188-X | Princeton | The Heart Sutra with eight complete Indian and Tibetan commentaries | |
| Rabten, Geshe http://www.fpmt.org/teachers/rabten.asp | Echoes of Voidness ISBN 0-86171-010-X | Wisdom | Includes the Heart Sutra with a Tibetan commentary | |
| Geshe Kelsang Gyatso http://kadampa.org/en/buddhism/venerable-geshe-kelsang-gyatso/ | Heart of Wisdom Heart of Wisdom Heart of Wisdom: An Explanation of the Heart Sutra is a commentary to Buddha Shakyamuni's Heart Sutra by Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, a Buddhist teacher and author in the West.... ISBN 0-948006-77-3 | Tharpa | The Heart Sutra with a Tibetan commentary | |
| Thich Nhat Hanh | The Heart of Understanding ISBN 0-938077-11-2 | Parallax Press | The Heart Sutra with a Chan Zen Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen... commentary | |
| Thich Nhat Hanh | The Diamond that Cuts Through Illusion ISBN 0-938077-51-1 | Parallax Press | The Diamond Sutra with a Chan Zen Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen... commentary | |
| Edward Conze Edward Conze Eberhart Julius Dietrich Conze was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.-Life and work:... | Perfect Wisdom; The Short Prajnaparamita Texts ISBN 0-946672-28-8 | Buddhist Publishing Group, Totnes. (Luzac reprint) | Most of the short sutras: Perfection of Wisdom in 500 Lines, 700 lines, The Heart Sutra and The Diamond Sutra, one word, plus some Tantric sutras, all without commentaries. | |
| Edward Conze Edward Conze Eberhart Julius Dietrich Conze was an Anglo-German scholar probably best known for his pioneering translations of Buddhist texts.-Life and work:... | Selected Sayings from the Perfection of Wisdom | Buddhist Society, London | Portions of various Perfection of Wisdom sutras | |
| Dr. Yutang Lin | Wisdom and Compassion in Limitless Oneness | Taiwan | 1995 |
External links
- The Prajnaparamita Literature Bibliography of the Prajnaparamita Literature
- Lotsawa House Translations of several Tibetan texts on the Prajnaparamita
- Dr. Yutang Lin: The Unification of Wisdom and Compassion
- The Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya Gāthā: condensed online translation by Neil Christopher
- Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (Orsa Fulguralia): Latin Translation, by Alexander Ricius