Precarious work
Encyclopedia
Precarious work is a term used to describe non-standard employment
which is poorly paid, insecure, unprotected, and cannot support a household. In recent decades there has been a dramatic increase in precarious work due to such factors as: globalization
, the shift from the manufacturing sector to the service sector, and the spread of information technology
. These changes have created a new economy
which demands flexibility in the workplace and, as a result, caused the decline of the standard employment relationship and a dramatic increase in precarious work. An important aspect of precarious work is its gender
ed nature, as women are continuously over-represented in this type of work.
Precarious work is frequently associated with the following types of employment: “part-time employment, self-employment
, fixed-term work, temporary work
, on-call work, homeworker
s, and telecommuting
.” All of these forms of employment are related in that they depart from the standard employment relationship (full-time, continuous work with one employer). Each form of precarious work may offer its own challenges but they all share the same disadvantages: low wages, few benefits, lack of collective representation, and little to no job security
.
There are four dimensions when determining if employment is precarious in nature:
, and extensive medical coverage protected the standard employee from unacceptable practices and working conditions. The standard employment relationship emerged after World War II
with the men who worked in the manufacturing
industries and this soon became the norm. On completing their education, most men would go on to work full-time for one employer their entire lives until their retirement
at the age of 65. During this time, women would only work temporarily until they got married and had children, at which time they would withdraw from the workforce.
When the standard employment relationship dominated, women would take on precarious work merely to supplement her husband’s income. In the last two decades, the standard employment relationship has declined, and more men are taking jobs that were previously associated with women.Despite this fact, women continue to make up the majority of precarious workers, and this has led to the growth of precarious employment being referred to as the "feminization of work."
“Feminization
” refers to not only the increase of women in the workforce
but also the increase of forms of employment that were previously assigned solely to women (low wages, part-time or temporary, and without benefits). As more women entered the workplace in developing countries in the 1990s, there became deteriorating employment opportunities for men, while women workers were challenged by unequal treatment. Despite women “joining” men in the workforce, there is widespread segregation of the genders in different occupations. Additionally, women have higher rates of part-time employment, earn less than men do for the same work, and face a glass ceiling
that prevents upward mobility in their organization. For example, in Australia, one in three women are non-permanent employees and they are paid 21 percent less than permanent employees and are without benefits like holiday and sick leave. In Canada, 40 percent of employed women hold precarious jobs, while in Korea this rate is even higher where 69 percent of women are engaged in precarious work.
The differences in work performed by men and women in the paid labor force have been historically explained by women’s care responsibilities in the home. Neoclassical economists reject the feminist theory
that the relationship of the public and private spheres is not separate, rather interdependent. The separation view taken by advanced industrialized economies, of production from reproduction, creates an extreme tension in the economy. Scholars argue that this tension could be eased with the government’s involvement in social reproduction (with immigration
, providing health services and public education
, and elder assistance) as well as institutionalizing a new gender order (to help lift the large burden of unpaid care work off women).
and the spread of information technology
have created a new economy
that emphasizes flexibility in the marketplace
and in employment relationships. These influences have resulted in the increase of women in the workplace as well as the rise in precarious work. Regulation of precarious work differs between each country. These regulations can either reinforce the differences between standard and precarious employment or they can serve to lessen these differences by increasing the protections afforded to precarious workers.
Changes in the nature of work in developing and developed countries have inspired the International Labor Organization (ILO) to develop standards for atypical and precarious employment. The ILO began to expand its policies to include precarious workers with the Convention Concerning Part-time Work in 1994 and the Convention Concerning Home Work in 1996. While, the Organization’s more recent initiative, titled "Decent Work," began in 1999 and attempts to improve the conditions of all people- waged, unwaged, those in the formal and informal market, by enlarging labor and social protections.
Employment
Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. An employee may be defined as:- Employee :...
which is poorly paid, insecure, unprotected, and cannot support a household. In recent decades there has been a dramatic increase in precarious work due to such factors as: globalization
Globalization
Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. Most often, it refers to economics: the global distribution of the production of goods and services, through reduction of barriers to international trade such as tariffs, export fees, and import...
, the shift from the manufacturing sector to the service sector, and the spread of information technology
Information technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
. These changes have created a new economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
which demands flexibility in the workplace and, as a result, caused the decline of the standard employment relationship and a dramatic increase in precarious work. An important aspect of precarious work is its gender
Gender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
ed nature, as women are continuously over-represented in this type of work.
Precarious work is frequently associated with the following types of employment: “part-time employment, self-employment
Self-employment
Self-employment is working for one's self.Self-employed people can also be referred to as a person who works for himself/herself instead of an employer, but drawing income from a trade or business that they operate personally....
, fixed-term work, temporary work
Temporary work
Temporary work or temporary employment refers to a situation where the employee is expected to leave the employer within a certain period of time. Temporary employees are sometimes called "contractual", "seasonal", "interim", "casual staff", "freelance", or "part-time"; or the word may be shortened...
, on-call work, homeworker
Homeworker
Homeworkers or home workers are defined by the International Labour Organization as people working from their homes or from other premises of their choosing other than the workplace, for remuneration, which results of a product or service specified by the employer...
s, and telecommuting
Telecommuting
Telecommuting or telework is a work arrangement in which employees enjoy flexibility in working location and hours. In other words, the daily commute to a central place of work is replaced by telecommunication links...
.” All of these forms of employment are related in that they depart from the standard employment relationship (full-time, continuous work with one employer). Each form of precarious work may offer its own challenges but they all share the same disadvantages: low wages, few benefits, lack of collective representation, and little to no job security
Job security
Job security is the probability that an individual will keep his or her job; a job with a high level of job security is such that a person with the job would have a small chance of becoming unemployed.-Factors affecting job security:...
.
There are four dimensions when determining if employment is precarious in nature:
- the degree of certainty of continuing employment;
- control over the labor process, which is linked to the presence or absence of trade unionTrade unionA trade union, trades union or labor union is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with...
s and professional associations and relates to control over working conditions, wages, and the pace of work; - the degree of regulatory protection; and
- income level.
Deviation from the Standard Employment Relationship
The standard employment relationship can be defined as full-time, continuous employment where the employee works on his employer’s premises or under the employer's supervision. The central aspects of this relationship include an employment contract of indefinite duration, standardized working hours/weeks and sufficient social benefits. Benefits like pensions, unemploymentUnemployment
Unemployment , as defined by the International Labour Organization, occurs when people are without jobs and they have actively sought work within the past four weeks...
, and extensive medical coverage protected the standard employee from unacceptable practices and working conditions. The standard employment relationship emerged after World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
with the men who worked in the manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing is the use of machines, tools and labor to produce goods for use or sale. The term may refer to a range of human activity, from handicraft to high tech, but is most commonly applied to industrial production, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale...
industries and this soon became the norm. On completing their education, most men would go on to work full-time for one employer their entire lives until their retirement
Retirement
Retirement is the point where a person stops employment completely. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours.Many people choose to retire when they are eligible for private or public pension benefits, although some are forced to retire when physical conditions don't allow the person to...
at the age of 65. During this time, women would only work temporarily until they got married and had children, at which time they would withdraw from the workforce.
The Gendered Nature of Precarious Work
“Feminization
Feminization (sociology)
In sociology, feminization is the shift in gender roles and sex roles in a society, group, or organization towards a focus upon the feminine. This is the opposite of a cultural focus upon masculinity....
” refers to not only the increase of women in the workforce
Women in the workforce
Until modern industrialized times, legal and cultural practices, combined with the inertia of longstanding religious and educational traditions, had restricted women's entry and participation in the workforce. Economic dependency upon men, and consequently the poor socio-economic status of women...
but also the increase of forms of employment that were previously assigned solely to women (low wages, part-time or temporary, and without benefits). As more women entered the workplace in developing countries in the 1990s, there became deteriorating employment opportunities for men, while women workers were challenged by unequal treatment. Despite women “joining” men in the workforce, there is widespread segregation of the genders in different occupations. Additionally, women have higher rates of part-time employment, earn less than men do for the same work, and face a glass ceiling
Glass ceiling
In economics, the term glass ceiling refers to "the unseen, yet unbreachable barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements." Initially, the metaphor applied to barriers in the careers of women but...
that prevents upward mobility in their organization. For example, in Australia, one in three women are non-permanent employees and they are paid 21 percent less than permanent employees and are without benefits like holiday and sick leave. In Canada, 40 percent of employed women hold precarious jobs, while in Korea this rate is even higher where 69 percent of women are engaged in precarious work.
The differences in work performed by men and women in the paid labor force have been historically explained by women’s care responsibilities in the home. Neoclassical economists reject the feminist theory
Feminist theory
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse, it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality...
that the relationship of the public and private spheres is not separate, rather interdependent. The separation view taken by advanced industrialized economies, of production from reproduction, creates an extreme tension in the economy. Scholars argue that this tension could be eased with the government’s involvement in social reproduction (with immigration
Immigration
Immigration is the act of foreigners passing or coming into a country for the purpose of permanent residence...
, providing health services and public education
Public education
State schools, also known in the United States and Canada as public schools,In much of the Commonwealth, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom, the terms 'public education', 'public school' and 'independent school' are used for private schools, that is, schools...
, and elder assistance) as well as institutionalizing a new gender order (to help lift the large burden of unpaid care work off women).
The Regulation of Precarious Work
GlobalizationGlobalization
Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. Most often, it refers to economics: the global distribution of the production of goods and services, through reduction of barriers to international trade such as tariffs, export fees, and import...
and the spread of information technology
Information technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
have created a new economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
that emphasizes flexibility in the marketplace
Marketplace
A marketplace is the space, actual, virtual or metaphorical, in which a market operates. The term is also used in a trademark law context to denote the actual consumer environment, ie. the 'real world' in which products and services are provided and consumed.-Marketplaces and street markets:A...
and in employment relationships. These influences have resulted in the increase of women in the workplace as well as the rise in precarious work. Regulation of precarious work differs between each country. These regulations can either reinforce the differences between standard and precarious employment or they can serve to lessen these differences by increasing the protections afforded to precarious workers.
Changes in the nature of work in developing and developed countries have inspired the International Labor Organization (ILO) to develop standards for atypical and precarious employment. The ILO began to expand its policies to include precarious workers with the Convention Concerning Part-time Work in 1994 and the Convention Concerning Home Work in 1996. While, the Organization’s more recent initiative, titled "Decent Work," began in 1999 and attempts to improve the conditions of all people- waged, unwaged, those in the formal and informal market, by enlarging labor and social protections.