Process theory
Encyclopedia
Process theory is a commonly used form of scientific research
study in which events or occurrences are said to be the result of certain input state
s leading to a certain outcome (output
) state, following a set process.
Process theory holds that if an outcome is to be duplicated, so too must the process which originally created it, and that there are certain constant
necessary conditions for the outcome to be reached. When the phrase is used in connection with human motivation, process theory attempts to explain the mechanism by which human needs changes. Some of the theories that fall in this category are expectancy theory
, equity theory
, and goal setting
.
In management research, process theory provides an explanation for 'how' something happens and a variance theory explains 'why'.
Some theorists claim that all natural processes have complex phases in which the output state of the process is not determined by the input states of the processes. The condition is defined by Robert Rosen as being "complex".
", also known as the "psychological fallacy". It has been defined as: “A set of considerations which hold good only because a completed process is read into the content of the process which conditions this completed result." In other words, the fallacy is committed when something is read into a process which comes about only as a result of that process.
emerged out of philosophy
. It is notable that ancient
and Enlightenment
era Western philosophy completely overlooked the power of process in producing effects. For instance, Plato
imagined "forms
" and the atomists imagined "atoms
" (in their original Greek sense
) as fully explaining reality in its "current state." The problem with such accounts of "current state" reality is that we are left with our theoretical entities to account for.
In the 19th century, science began to part with this old "entity-centric" view in favor of processes. One of the earliest is Charles Darwin
's theory of evolution
. It was followed by the Big Bang
theory and plate tectonics. In these theories, complex "current states" can be explained in terms of processes that occurred over time and space — generally evolving from simpler more primordial states. One of the advantages of process theories is that they avoid endless regress of explanations, as complex states arise from simpler states--what is often referred to as a teleological perspective.
Only very recently has this thinking begun to enter philosophy (see Alfred North Whitehead
). Rather than accounting for experience through hypothetical entities and forces (such as matter and energy) philosophers are beginning to postulate an evolution of experience itself — resulting in fewer "working parts" and surprising degrees of explanatory power. What was taken to be the result of matter and energy (the effect as presented in human experience) is then simply reassigned as a piece in a perceptual process. This is still a new and radical view and is not as of yet the general consensus, but it does appear to be persisting as an alternative worldview.
Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
study in which events or occurrences are said to be the result of certain input state
State (computer science)
In computer science and automata theory, a state is a unique configuration of information in a program or machine. It is a concept that occasionally extends into some forms of systems programming such as lexers and parsers....
s leading to a certain outcome (output
Output
Output is the term denoting either an exit or changes which exit a system and which activate/modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the modeling, system design and system exploitation.-In control theory:...
) state, following a set process.
Process theory holds that if an outcome is to be duplicated, so too must the process which originally created it, and that there are certain constant
Constant (mathematics)
In mathematics, a constant is a non-varying value, i.e. completely fixed or fixed in the context of use. The term usually occurs in opposition to variable In mathematics, a constant is a non-varying value, i.e. completely fixed or fixed in the context of use. The term usually occurs in opposition...
necessary conditions for the outcome to be reached. When the phrase is used in connection with human motivation, process theory attempts to explain the mechanism by which human needs changes. Some of the theories that fall in this category are expectancy theory
Expectancy theory
Expectancy Theory proposes that a person will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is...
, equity theory
Equity theory
Equity theory is a theory that attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships...
, and goal setting
Goal setting
Goal setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-targeted goals. Work on the theory of goal-setting suggests that it's an effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a group with a common goal are clearly aware of what is expected from...
.
In management research, process theory provides an explanation for 'how' something happens and a variance theory explains 'why'.
Some theorists claim that all natural processes have complex phases in which the output state of the process is not determined by the input states of the processes. The condition is defined by Robert Rosen as being "complex".
A Classification of Motivation Theories (Content vs. Process)
Motivation theories can be classified broadly into two different perspectives: Content and Process theories. Content Theories deal with “what” motivates people and it is concerned with individual needs and goals. Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg and McCelland studied motivation from a “content” perspective. Process Theories deal with the “process” of motivation and is concerned with “how” motivation occurs. Vroom, Porter & Lawler, Adams and Locke studied motivation from a “process” perspective.1Historical fallacy
Central to process theory is the rigorous avoidance of the "historical fallacyHistorical fallacy
The Historical fallacy, also called the psychological fallacy, is a logical fallacy originally described by philosopher John Dewey in 1896...
", also known as the "psychological fallacy". It has been defined as: “A set of considerations which hold good only because a completed process is read into the content of the process which conditions this completed result." In other words, the fallacy is committed when something is read into a process which comes about only as a result of that process.
Surgence in philosophy
Western scienceScience
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
emerged out of philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
. It is notable that ancient
Ancient philosophy
This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, whereas in Eastern philosophy, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire...
and Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
era Western philosophy completely overlooked the power of process in producing effects. For instance, Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
imagined "forms
Theory of Forms
Plato's theory of Forms or theory of Ideas asserts that non-material abstract forms , and not the material world of change known to us through sensation, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. When used in this sense, the word form is often capitalized...
" and the atomists imagined "atoms
Atomism
Atomism is a natural philosophy that developed in several ancient traditions. The atomists theorized that the natural world consists of two fundamental parts: indivisible atoms and empty void.According to Aristotle, atoms are indestructible and immutable and there are an infinite variety of shapes...
" (in their original Greek sense
Greek philosophy
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BCE and continued through the Hellenistic period, at which point Ancient Greece was incorporated in the Roman Empire...
) as fully explaining reality in its "current state." The problem with such accounts of "current state" reality is that we are left with our theoretical entities to account for.
In the 19th century, science began to part with this old "entity-centric" view in favor of processes. One of the earliest is Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
's theory of evolution
Evolution
Evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.Life on Earth...
. It was followed by the Big Bang
Big Bang
The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model that explains the early development of the Universe. According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe was once in an extremely hot and dense state which expanded rapidly. This rapid expansion caused the young Universe to cool and resulted in...
theory and plate tectonics. In these theories, complex "current states" can be explained in terms of processes that occurred over time and space — generally evolving from simpler more primordial states. One of the advantages of process theories is that they avoid endless regress of explanations, as complex states arise from simpler states--what is often referred to as a teleological perspective.
Only very recently has this thinking begun to enter philosophy (see Alfred North Whitehead
Alfred North Whitehead
Alfred North Whitehead, OM FRS was an English mathematician who became a philosopher. He wrote on algebra, logic, foundations of mathematics, philosophy of science, physics, metaphysics, and education...
). Rather than accounting for experience through hypothetical entities and forces (such as matter and energy) philosophers are beginning to postulate an evolution of experience itself — resulting in fewer "working parts" and surprising degrees of explanatory power. What was taken to be the result of matter and energy (the effect as presented in human experience) is then simply reassigned as a piece in a perceptual process. This is still a new and radical view and is not as of yet the general consensus, but it does appear to be persisting as an alternative worldview.
See also
- Process philosophyProcess philosophyProcess philosophy identifies metaphysical reality with change and dynamism. Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, philosophers have posited true reality as "timeless", based on permanent substances, whilst processes are denied or subordinated to timeless substances...
- Process theologyProcess theologyProcess theology is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead and further developed by Charles Hartshorne . While there are process theologies that are similar, but unrelated to the work of Whitehead the term is generally applied to the...
- Process Oriented PsychologyProcess Oriented PsychologyProcess oriented psychology refers to a body of theory and practice that encompasses a broad range of psychotherapeutic, personal growth, and group process applications. It is more commonly called "process work" in the United States, the longer name being used in Europe and Asia...
- Gestalt psychologyGestalt psychologyGestalt psychology or gestaltism is a theory of mind and brain of the Berlin School; the operational principle of gestalt psychology is that the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies...
- Interactions of Actors Theory