Process theory of composition
Encyclopedia
The process theory of composition (hereafter referred to as "process") is a field of composition studies
that focuses on writing as a product rather than a process. Based on Janet Emig's breakdown of the writing process
, process is centered on the idea that students cannot determine the content of a course, and should learn to write by reading good writing and learning to mirror those techniques. By exploring the craft of writing using other writers interests, language, techniques, and voice, and students learn what people respond to and what they don't. Classroom activities often include highly structured writing exercises such as attempting to write in the style of a renown and well-known writer or using another writers arguments to prove a different point .
. Writing instructors began giving students less group work and found that, without guidance, students were not able to identify and recognize areas that needed improvement in other students' papers, and that peer criticism was unable to help students recognize their own areas to strengthen [cite]. Composition scholars such as Janet Emig, Peter Elbow
, and Donald Murray
began considering how these methods could be used in the writing classroom. Emig, in her book, The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders, broke down writing into distinct parts; these were later simplified into a basic three-step process by Murray: prewriting, writing, and rewriting (also called "revision").
Process also gained prominence in the collegiate world as a reaction against the formalism
composition methods, sometimes called "current-traditional" methods, that encouraged adherence to individual ideas and "thinking outside the box" writing, such as the creative non-fiction essays.
Prewriting activities. These could include brainstorming and/or other freewriting activities, drawing conceptual maps, participating in an ethnographic study, research, and more.
Drafting. Class time can be spent writing papers, and students can ask instructors for ideas or help.
Revision. Instructors can designate class time for the revision of drafts and direct students to focus on rhetorical strategies.
Portfolio-based assessment. Students are given a deadline, such as the end of a semester, and a goal, such as demonstrating skills like rhetorical awareness, conventional thinking, and source acceptance and integration. The intervening time is spent drafting and revising papers. Composition instructors serve as final authorities on the quality of work, helping students explore areas foreign to them, rather than more free wheeling teachers who tell students how to express their individuality. From among the papers they work on in the semester, students choose the papers the instructor considers to be their best and put them in a portfolio, which is graded by the instructor. Often students are graded on their drafts during the semester as well as on the work they produce at the end of it.
Reflection on the writing process.
When writing is conceived of and taught as a prescriptive and generalizable “process,” according to Gary Olson, useful implications arise in the creation of a Theory of Writing, a master narrative that attempts to “systematize something that simply is not susceptible to systematization”
Similarly, George Pullman positions the writing process movement as a rhetorical narrative, positioned in history as a result of writing as an undervalued, utilitarian skill that could be universally transmitted in higher education (17). This emerged out of “current traditional rhetoric” that originated at Harvard in the 1680s and peaked in the late 1860s. Writing became a highly artistic affair, rooted exclusively in empirical observation. Post-process theorists argue, however, that if the writing process “were really the way all successful writers write regardless of context, then unless all writing is somehow supportive of a single ideological system, there would be no obfuscatory ideological baggage attending the process."
Theorists continue to discuss pedagogical and systemic implications of both process and post-process approaches to composition.
Process theorists themselves have had to identify and work around certain constraints the process method brings with it; namely:
And if there are no rules as to what students may and may not write about, instructors have to be well-versed in a variety of discourses and ready to deal with conflict that may arise when two or more discourses meet (sometimes called a contact zone). Instructors must also find ways to encourage each student to explore and bring content to the course and must deal with diversity and a range of opinions on what should be done in the course.
Process rose to prominence in composition classrooms during the late 1960s and enjoyed its status as the gold standard method of teaching through the 1980s and into the 1990s. Many of its tenets are still used today; however, its popularity and methods have brought criticism from different composition theorists, such as post-process theorists, who charge that:
Composition studies
Composition Studies is the professional field of writing research and instruction, focusing especially on writing at the college level in the United States...
that focuses on writing as a product rather than a process. Based on Janet Emig's breakdown of the writing process
Writing process
The Writing process is both a key concept in the teaching of writing and an important research concept in the field of composition studies.Research on the writing process focuses on how writers draft, revise, and edit texts...
, process is centered on the idea that students cannot determine the content of a course, and should learn to write by reading good writing and learning to mirror those techniques. By exploring the craft of writing using other writers interests, language, techniques, and voice, and students learn what people respond to and what they don't. Classroom activities often include highly structured writing exercises such as attempting to write in the style of a renown and well-known writer or using another writers arguments to prove a different point .
How process began
Historically, the ideas behind process were born out of decreased college enrollment due in part to the repeal of GI Bill following World War IIWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. Writing instructors began giving students less group work and found that, without guidance, students were not able to identify and recognize areas that needed improvement in other students' papers, and that peer criticism was unable to help students recognize their own areas to strengthen [cite]. Composition scholars such as Janet Emig, Peter Elbow
Peter Elbow
Peter Elbow is currently a Professor of English Emeritus at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst where he also directed the Writing Program from 1996 until 2000...
, and Donald Murray
Donald Murray
Sir Donald Bruce Murray was a Lord Justice of Appeal of the Supreme Court of Northern Ireland. Born in Belfast, Northern Ireland, he was educated at Belfast Royal Academy and the Queen's University, Belfast as well as Trinity College Dublin...
began considering how these methods could be used in the writing classroom. Emig, in her book, The Composing Processes of Twelfth Graders, broke down writing into distinct parts; these were later simplified into a basic three-step process by Murray: prewriting, writing, and rewriting (also called "revision").
Process also gained prominence in the collegiate world as a reaction against the formalism
Formalism (music)
In music theory and especially in the branch of study called the aesthetics of music, formalism is the concept that a composition's meaning is entirely determined by its form.-Aesthetic theory:Leonard B...
composition methods, sometimes called "current-traditional" methods, that encouraged adherence to individual ideas and "thinking outside the box" writing, such as the creative non-fiction essays.
Teaching methods and implications
Process can be taught using a variety of methods intended to strengthen the relationship between students and instructor. In other words, classroom discussion and activities center on students' ability to understand what has come before in hopes that they will understand what good writing is and learn to mimic it. Some of the methods include:Prewriting activities. These could include brainstorming and/or other freewriting activities, drawing conceptual maps, participating in an ethnographic study, research, and more.
Drafting. Class time can be spent writing papers, and students can ask instructors for ideas or help.
Revision. Instructors can designate class time for the revision of drafts and direct students to focus on rhetorical strategies.
Portfolio-based assessment. Students are given a deadline, such as the end of a semester, and a goal, such as demonstrating skills like rhetorical awareness, conventional thinking, and source acceptance and integration. The intervening time is spent drafting and revising papers. Composition instructors serve as final authorities on the quality of work, helping students explore areas foreign to them, rather than more free wheeling teachers who tell students how to express their individuality. From among the papers they work on in the semester, students choose the papers the instructor considers to be their best and put them in a portfolio, which is graded by the instructor. Often students are graded on their drafts during the semester as well as on the work they produce at the end of it.
Reflection on the writing process.
Critiques of Process
Thomas Kent argues that “writing can be captured by a generalized process or a Big Theory,” and that post-process theory makes three central claims about writing: “(1) writing is private; (2) writing is not up for interpretation; and (3) writing can, and should be, highly organized.”When writing is conceived of and taught as a prescriptive and generalizable “process,” according to Gary Olson, useful implications arise in the creation of a Theory of Writing, a master narrative that attempts to “systematize something that simply is not susceptible to systematization”
Similarly, George Pullman positions the writing process movement as a rhetorical narrative, positioned in history as a result of writing as an undervalued, utilitarian skill that could be universally transmitted in higher education (17). This emerged out of “current traditional rhetoric” that originated at Harvard in the 1680s and peaked in the late 1860s. Writing became a highly artistic affair, rooted exclusively in empirical observation. Post-process theorists argue, however, that if the writing process “were really the way all successful writers write regardless of context, then unless all writing is somehow supportive of a single ideological system, there would be no obfuscatory ideological baggage attending the process."
Theorists continue to discuss pedagogical and systemic implications of both process and post-process approaches to composition.
Process theorists themselves have had to identify and work around certain constraints the process method brings with it; namely:
Constraints for students
If papers are not graded throughout the semester, students don't have any idea of the grade they are earning. Also, students might not be inclined to take control of the class content and decide what they want to explore; they may expect the instructor to provide material for them. Additionally, students may not improve their grammar and other writing conventions if content is emphasized over form.Constraints for composition instructors
Composition classes are often overfilled, so instructors have to spend much of their time reading through drafts. Power can also be a struggle, for if student grades depend on a portfolio, then instructors have to find ways of encouraging and/or enforcing attendance.And if there are no rules as to what students may and may not write about, instructors have to be well-versed in a variety of discourses and ready to deal with conflict that may arise when two or more discourses meet (sometimes called a contact zone). Instructors must also find ways to encourage each student to explore and bring content to the course and must deal with diversity and a range of opinions on what should be done in the course.
Process rose to prominence in composition classrooms during the late 1960s and enjoyed its status as the gold standard method of teaching through the 1980s and into the 1990s. Many of its tenets are still used today; however, its popularity and methods have brought criticism from different composition theorists, such as post-process theorists, who charge that:
- Process theory is rules-oriented just like the current-traditional method it had sought to escape.
- It doesn't teach basic skills and conventions (grammar, style, etc.).
- It doesn't acknowledge issues of race/class/gender because it was so focused on the writer's language and experience.
- It doesn't recognize the significance of context, again because it was focused on the writer's experience.
Further reading
- Elbow, Peter. Writing with Power, Writing Without Teachers
- Macrorie, Ken. Telling Writing, Writing to be Read
- Emig, Janet. The Web of Meaning
- Kent, Thomas, ed. Post-Process Theory: Beyond the Writing-Process Paradigm. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1999.