Pudukkottai
Encyclopedia
Pudukkottai is a town and a municipality
in Pudukkottai district
in the India
n state
of Tamil Nadu
. Pudukkottai District was carved out of Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur districts in January 1974.
It is the administrative headquarters of Pudukkottai District.
The well known Tamil actor Gemini Ganesan was born in Pudukkotai.
Pudukkottai was organised as a separate district, on 14 January 1974, comprising the former Pudukkottai Division of Tiruchirappalli district with some additions from Thanjavur district. At present, this district is composed of two Revenue Divisions, namely, Pudukkottai and Aranthangi and ten Taluks, namely, Kulathur, Illuppur, Alangudi, Pudukkottai, Gandarvakottai, Thirumayam, Aranthangi, Avudaiyrakoil, Manamelkudi and Ponnamaravathy. There are 765 Revenue Villages. The area of the district is 4663 km². The population of the district is 14,52,269 (as per Census 2001 provisional figures). The district depends a great deal on the monsoon for its water supply.
Many of the villages are of ancient foundation. The district was one of the homes of prehistoric man. A very large number of burial sites found in the northern and western parts of the district attest this fact.
A very brief sketch of political history is given here in order to appreciate and understand the mixed legacy of antiquities, monuments, epigraphs and the like. The history of Pudukkottai is an epitome of the history of South India. In and around Pudukkottai, there are many vestiges of the oldest habitations of man and some of the lithic records known in the south. The Pandyas, Cholas, Pallavas, Haysalas, Vijaynagar and Madurai Nayaks ruled over this part of the country and fostered its communal organisations, trade and industries and embellished it with temples and monuments of outstanding merit.
Sangam Tamil literatures mention some place names of the district. Oliyamangalam (Thirumayam Taluk) is called as Ollaiyur in Purananuru. It was the birthplace of poet Ollaiyur Kilan Makan Perumchattan and Ollaiyur Thantha Budha Pandyan. Agananuru also mentions Ollaiyur. It seems to have been an important city of the Pandyas. Four other places also find place in the Sangam classics. They are Ambukkovil, the ancient Alumbil, referred to in Agananuru; Avur the home of the poets Avurkilar, Avur Mulamkilar; Erichi, the ancient Erichalur which had been identified with Erichi Village in Pudukkottai - Aranthangi road (But according to recent researches a village near Illupur). It was probably the home of the poet Madalan Madurai Kumaranar. Avayapatti is traditionally associated with Avvaiyar, who is believed to have lived here for some time.
This district was under the Pandyas of the first empire during Sangam period, but some part of its northern boundary had been under the influence of the Cholas of Uraiyur, since a few villages here bear the prefix like "killi" and "valavan" both of which are the titles of the Cholas.
The district shares the large prosperity of the maritime trade of the Tamils, Karukkakurichi, the place of find of a treasure trove of more than 500 Imperial Roman Gold and Silver Coins, the largest ever recorded from a single hoard deserves notice in the context of the early history of the district. This place lies in Alangudi taluk, with in a short distance north of Aranthangi and the adjoining old ports of Mimisal and Saliyur in the same area and Tondi further south. The site of find would mark an important Indo-Roman trading centre, through which the inland trade route ran between the western and eastern ports during that time.
This is indicated by a chain of such Roman coin hoard sites such as Korkai, Kilakkarai, Alagankulam all on the eastern sea coast. While Karukkakuruchi is a bit inland but not far away from port like Mimisal. There are also few other sites of such finds in the east coast. These, while pointing out the exchanges of the exportable products for Roman gold and silver currency would also indicate the places mentioned to have been active trade centres. The Karukkakurichi hoard contained the issues of the Roman emperors and their queens, successively from Augustus (BC 29 – AD 14) up to Vaspasianus (69–79 AD).
From about the end of fourth century about the last quarter of sixth, the district, like many other parts of Tamil Nadu was under the Kalabhras. It must have come under the King Kurran, inscription of whom has been found in Pulankurichi near Ponnamaravathi in the district.
The next phase in the history of the district, follows the overthrow of Kalabharas by Kadungon in Pandya country about 590 AD. The first Pandya empire inaugurated by Kadungon spread in to the district. This is shown by the presence of inscription of the rulers of this dynasty in Kudumianmalai, Thirugokarnam and Sittannavasal. The poem, Pandimandala sathakam states that Pandya land's northern frontier was river Vellar. The Vellar that flows north of Pudukkottai town has been from the ancient times was the traditional boundary separating the terrains of the Cholas and Pandyas. This dividing line formed the Konadu and Kanadu, on the north and south respectively.
Thus the district became a kind of marchar land between the Pandyas and Pallavas. The Pandyas and Pallavas carried on the wars by proxy through their subordinate chiefs the Mutharayars and Velirs. Among the Velirs the most well known are the Irukkuvels of Kodumbalur. The Kodumbalur Velirs located in the political buffer zone between the kingdoms of the Cholas and Pandyas and formed the family of nobility from which kings and other chiefs made matrimonial alliance.
The period of three centuries between C 600 and C 900 AD relates to the reign of the Pallavas of Kanchi and Pandyas of Madurai who ruled over the entire Tamila Nadu with their boundary in between their empires oscillating on either side of river Kaveri the bone of contention being Cholamandalam the home of Cholas and the fertile Kaveri delta that was the granary of the south and as such always been the cynosure of all powers contending for supremacy during the entire historical period. The Cholas themselves were in eclipse and hibernating only to revive again in the ninth century, when the Pallava power came to an end, the Pandyas were holding on for some more time to yield place ultimately to the waxing Chola power.
Though Mahendravarma Pallava (604–630 A.D) inherited the Pallava empire from his victorious father Simhavishnu that reached up to the bank of the Cauvery, Cholamandalam could not be retained by his immediate successor, as it was over-run by the Pandyas of the further south. The tract north and south of river Vellar were in the hands of the Mutharayar chieftains who till their annihilation by the resurgent Chola line of Vijayalaya, were owing alternate allegiance to the super powers. The Irukkuvelirs, at the end became the firm allies of the Cholas.
Thus, one cannot expect to find early Pallava monuments, antiquities and inscriptions in Pudukkottai region but only those of the contemporary Pandyas along with those of Mutharaiyars and Irukkuvelirs. Later Pallavas wrested the tract from the hands of the Pandyas. The tract come under the Pallavas from the time of Nandhivarman-II (730–796 AD) when the Pallavas power reasserted itself in Cholamandalam and the tract south of Kaveri, reaching a little south beyond Vellar, comprising the northern half of the Pudukkottai district. This period is thus marked by the presence of rock cut cave temples of the Pandyas and Mutharaiyars.
The available historical evidence under the first Pandya empire is rather scanty. The best known is the inscription at Sittannavasal in the reign of Srimara Srivallaba (851–862 AD) and at Kudumianmalai in the reign of Kochadayan Ranadheeran or Sadayan Maran (C 700-730 AD). In the reign of Maravarman Rajasimha-I (C 730-760 AD) a number of battles were fought against the Pallavas, one of the sites was Kodumbalur. The inscription of the reign of Nedunchadayan, (C 768-816 AD) the greatest king of the dynasty is found in Thirugokarnam and Nirpalani. Of the reign of three successors of Srimara Srivallaba ending with Rajasimha-II (c. 920 AD) who lost his kingdom to the resurgent Cholas, there are no reference about the Pandya rulers in the district.
The Pallava references to places and incidents in the district are equally scanty. The earliest reference of the historical events in the district find place in the Pandya records of Velvikudi and Sinnamanur plates which say that Maravarman Rajasimha defeated Nadhivarman Pallava Malla at Kodumbalur. The inscriptions of his successors are found in Kunnandarkoil, Malayadipatti and Rasalipatti.
The age of Pallavas and Pandyas of the first empire, the Mutharaiyars and Irukkuvelirs was the age of Tamil Bhakthi Movement. The Thevaram mentions several temples in the district. The three Nayanmars from this district were, Idangalinayanar of Kodumbalur, Perumizhalai Kurumbanayanar associated with Devarmalai and Kulachirai Nayanar of Manamelgudi.
Jainism well flourished in Pudukkottai area up to 11th century. There are a number of Jaina vestiges in the district.
The Buddhist vestiges in the district come from the former Thanjavur district. Buddha idols are found at Kottaipattinam and Karur.
With the exit of Pallavas from the political scene and the subsequent elimination of the Pandya power by the Cholas who established themselves at Thanjavur as their capital at the close of 9th century. By 11th century they extended their sway even beyond, Tamilakam. Pudukkottai among many other places come under them. Their rule extended till about the middle of 13th century when the Pandyas staged a comeback.
Under Chola Vijayalaya, this district formed part of his dominion but perhaps fitfully. The notion that some temples of ninth century in the district, belong to early Chola period, is erroneous. The Pandyas still held power in the region. It was not until the reign of Parantaka-I (907–955 AD). Vijayalay's second successor, that the Cholas conquered the entire Pandya land. The Kodumbalur chiefs helped Parantaka in his campaign and remained faithful to the Cholas thereafter.
The rule of Rajaraja-I shows a brilliant part in the history of the district in common with that of Tamil Nadu. The full benefaction of the Chola rule is revealed in their inscriptions in the district. These inscriptions are of great value is showing how effectively local administration functioned in this part of Chola Kingdom.
Rajaraja-I appointed his son the viceroy of the conquered Pandya and Chera lands. The entire district formed part of the Chola kingdom until the last year of Kulothunga-III (1178-1218 AD). At the death of Rajaraja-II and the succession of Rajadhiraja-II, the Chola power began to decline.
The Pandyas began to assert their independence from the time of Kulothunga-I. Towards the end of the reign of Raja Raja-II, Kulasekara one of the two contenders for Pandya throne pealed the Chola for help. His rival Parakrama turned towards Srilanka. Pudukkottai also become seat this civil war. Parakrama Babu the Srilanka king sent an army to assist Parakrama Pandya according to Culavamsa, the Sinhalese chronicle the Sinhalese army engaged itself in the war in the parts of the district and burnt down the three storeyed palace at Ponnamaravathi. The outcome of the civil war became disastrous to the Cholas.
The history of the district after the fall of Cholas could not be told in detail for the records are comparatively minimal.. The Pandyas of the second empire spread their influence in the district gradually.
The Pandya power reached its height in the district under Jatavarman Sundra Pandya-I and Jatavaraman vira Pandya-I the joint rulers. The inscription of Virapandya in Kudumianmalai, throws much light on his relationship with Srilanka and his kingdom across the seas. During the reign of Maravarman Kulasekara-I who acceded in 1268 A.D, Marcopolo the Venetian traveler visited Pandya country. Towards the end of Kulasekara's reign Jatavarman Virapandya-II and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-II, the brothers quarreled. This led to a civil war in Pandya country resulting in political unrest and confusion.
Malikafur the general of Alaudeen Khalji the Sultan of Delhi took advantage of this and invaded Pandya country. This led to the incorporation of the Pandya country in the Delhi empire in subsequent years. A sultanate was established at Madurai. There are two inscriptions relating to the period of the Sultans of Madurai in the district, one at Rangiam (1332 AD) and another at Panaiyur (1344 A.D).
The brief spell of Muslim rule (Sultanate of Madurai) at Madurai lasted for about 75 years and again there was political unrest and chaos and Pudukkottai region also shared the fate. Minor princes ruled small territories here and there. By about 1371 AD. Kumarakampana, the Vijayanagar prince took over Madurai and the Sultanate came to an end. But the Pandya power did not survive on the Hindu conquest and slowly it ceased to be a historical force in the district.
The Hoysalas of Karnataka arrived in the southern part of Tamil Nadu and actively intervened Chola - Pandya feuds and soon they came to occupy the region on either banks of river Cauvery with the capital at Kannanur (modern Samayapuram). They established themselves in the area by the middle of 13th century and much of the Pudukkottai area was under their sway till the end of 13th century.
The Vijayanagar Rayas centered in Hampi took over Madurai, from the Muslims when the whole of southern Karnataka, Andra and Tamil Nadu came under one rule - the Vijayanagar empire.
Under the Vijayanagar Sangama dynasty (1336-1485 A.D) the inscriptions in the district refer to many local chiefs such as Suraikudi, Perambur, Sendavanmangalam, Vanadaraiyar, Gangaiaraiyar and Thondaimans of Aranthangi. During the brief Suluva rule (1485-1505 A.D) Narasimha Raya the first Suluva emperor, during a tour of his dominions passed through Pudukkottai country on his way to Madurai. Vira Narasimha Nayak, the Tuluva usurper and the general of Saluva Narasimha-I, led a campign against the Pandya chiefs and marched through Pudukkottai.
A great Personality of the Tuluva dynasty (1505-1570 A.D) was Krishna Deveraya (1509-1529 A.D). He had visited Brahadamba Gokarnesa temple at Thirugokarnam on his way to Rameswaram and gifted many valuable presents to the temple. Under his successor eastern part of Pudukkottai district formed part of the Thanjavur kingdom for some time and the rest was under the Madurai Nayaks. The Thondaimans of Pudukkottai rose to power by about the end of 17th century.
The provincial viceroys of the Vijayanagar empire, the Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur asserted independence after the downfall of the empire. The Pudukkottai area thus came under the Nayaks of Madurai nominally and under the Thanjavur Nayaks frequently.
The Thondaimans of Pudukkottai came to rule with full sovereignty over the Pudukkottai area from the middle of the 17th century till its amalgamation with the rest of India after Indian Independence in 1947.
The ancestors of the Pudukkottai ruling line of Thondaimans, are migrants from Thiruppathi region in the Thondaimandalam, the northern stretch of the ancient Tamil Kingdom, along with the Vijaynagar army, which was in engagement in this part of territory in the early 17th century. It is probable that one among them got some lands assigned to him by the local Pallavarayar chieftain and settled down at Karambakudi and Ambukovil area, and became the chieftain of the area, later came to be called as the progenitor of Thondaimans of Pudukkottai ruling house. According to the legendary account found in a Telugu poem, Thondaiman Vamasavali, the Thondaimans belonged to Indravamsa and the first ruler was Pachai Thondaiman.
Avadi Raya Thondaiman, the successor of Pachai Thondaiman, with the favour of Venkata Raya-III (1630-1642 A.D) the king of Vijayanagar got extended the land in his possession in the region and he was also conferred the title Raya. The Avadai Raya Thondaiman inherited Vijayanagar tradition and the Thondaimans of later period adopted it.
His son Ragunatha Raya Thondaiman came close to the Nayak of Thanjavur and Rangakrishna Muthuvirappa Nayak of Tiruchirappalli. He was appointed as the arasu kavalar of Tiruchirappalli. Vijaya Raghunatha Kilavan Sethupathi (1673-1710 A.D) the Sethupathi ruler of Ramanathapuram married Kathali Nachiar the sister of Thondaiman. This marriage strengthened the ties between these dynasties. The Sethupathi presented the tract of land to the south of Vellar to the Thondaiman. Thus the Pudukkottai territory was enlarged. This account is called the Sethupathi origin of Pudukkottai country and expansion of Thondaiman rule. the Thondaiman's rule was established south of Vellar and Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman was in estimation to the status of a bigger territory by about 1686 A.D., and he ruled up to 1730 A.D.
About the time that Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman became the ruler of Pudukkottai, Namana Thondaiman, his brother became the chief of Kulathur Palayam (present Kulathur taluk area) with the blessings of the Nayak king Ranga Krishna Muthuvirappa of Tiruchirappalli (1682-1689 A.D) and Kulathur continued as separate "principality - with its ruler known as Kulathur Thondaiman " till about 1750 A.D when it was annexed to Pudukkottai. Reghunatha also got some territories by victory, consolidating Pudukkottai rule roughly constituting the former Kulathur, Alangudi and Thirumayam taluks. The tract contained in these taluks, later came to be known as Pudukkottai State (Pudukkottai Samasthanam).
Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman (1730-1769 A.D) was the second in the line of Thondaimans. During his period the whole of India come under the umbrella of the Mughals. The Nayakdoms of Ginjee, Thanjavur and Madurai were subjugated and became tributaries of the Mughal rule so also the smaller palayams which were under them. The Nizam of Hydrabad was appointed as the Mughal representative of South India, in turn the Nizam entrusted the Tamil Nadu region then known as Carnatic, to the Nawab of Arcot. Many of the tributory states did not remit the tributes regularly and such provinces were invaded by the Nawab's forces. Nothing like this happened in the case of Pudukkottai and was left undisturbed by the Nawab.
The famous war of succession to the office of Nawab of Carnatic between Mohamad Ali and Chanda Sahib, became in due course a war of supermacy between the English and the French in South India which resulted in the Carnatic wars. The French supported the cause of Chanda Sahib and the English were on the side of Mohamed Ali. The war lasted for many years mainly around Tiruchirappalli. The Thondaiman was firmly on the side of the English at his time while the rulers like Thanjavur Marathas wavered. At last the English emerged as the masters of this land. This firm help of the Thondaiman to the English was rewarded by the exemption of tribute by the victorious Nawab and later this was continued by the English.
The Thondaiman's act of friendship towards English continued by the next ruler Raya Raghunatha Thondaiman (1769–1789 A.D). Because of this the Thondaiman had to encounter the strong forces of Hyder Ali.
Vijaya Raghunatha Thondaiman (1789–1807 A.D) helped the English and the Nawb. The Nawab Mohamed Ali conferred up on the Thondaiman the title "Raja Bahadur". The political wind was in favour of the English. The entire Carnatic region was taken over by the English by 1800. During the process of consolidation of the English rule, the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom was taken away, Ramanathapuram was reduced to a Jamindari but Pudukkottai was on the firm grounds and it was allowed to be separate principality (not as a part of British India) with honours and was high in British favour. Pudukkottai was treated as a State and the Raja was quasi-independent ruler with full powers of administration.
It was during the time of this ruler Vijaya Raghunatha Thondaiman, the Poligar war took place between the English and the rebellious palayakars of Thirunelveli, the most significant of whom was Veerapandia Kattabomman or Kattabommu Nayak. Kattabomman defied the authority of English in collecting revenues on the Sicar lands and also in remitting the tribute regularly. Hostilities commenced against him, and Panchalamkurichy fort was attacked. Kattabomman escaped and was proceeding to Sivaganga through the forest in the Thondaiman country. At the request of the English administration Kattabomman was captured near Thirumayam by the soldiers of Thondaiman and handed over to the English at Madurai. Later Kattabomman was hanged at Kayattar. The defiant valour of Kattabomman came to be better appreciated with the passage of time. While Kattabomman has risen in general estimation as a hero, the image of Thondaiman as reflected in the events of the time, has suffered a fall because capturing and handing over of Kattabomman and come to be regarded as betrayal and as an unpatriotic act. Seen however in the political background then prevailed in the context of Thondaiman's fidelity to the English in prosperity and adversity and to the fact that Kattabomman never sought asylum with Thondaiman and hence the Thondaiman's role may objectively summed up as the reflex action of the ally and does not amount to betrayal.
The next ruler Raja Vijaya Reghunatha Raya Thondaiman (1807-1825 AD) was crowned when he was a minor and the British Government appointed Major John Black Burn, to undertake the management of the province of Pudukkottai. Since he was the former Resident of Thanjavur he brought to Pudukkottai a good deal of Thanjavur administration of Maratha mystique and Marathi was the language of administration of Pudukkottai for about seventy five years. Revenue and Judicial administration of same method and complexity were introduced in Pudukkottai. A palace with citadels and broad moat was constructed for the Thondaiman (the old palace in the centre of the town). The town was planned with straight roads bisecting each other in the four directions of the palace and thus Black Burn laid the foundation for modern town of Pudukkottai. (This palace, "The old palace" has disappeared completely, we can see the remains of the high wall in a few places in the vicinity of the present west main street and south main street (Rajaveethi)).
Raghunatha Thondaiman (1825–1839 A.D) was conferred with the title "His Excellency" by the British Government. He planned in 1830 to bring the Cauvery water to Pudukkottai through a new canal but could not succeed due to paucity of funds. Raghunatha Thondaiman was succeeded by his son Ramachandra Thondaiman (1839–1886).
His long tenure of office was marked by extravagance and gross mismanagement. An administrator Seshaia Sastri arrived at the scene as Dewan in 1878 and carried out many reforms. Among them was the remodelling of Pudukkottai town incorporating the principles of town planning which were little followed in the country at that time. The towering administrative office building in red brick colour in Pudukkottai was constructed under the supervision of Seshaiah Sastri. The Pudukkulam, the big lake in the town was another creation of Seshaiah Sastri. Ramachandra Thondaiman has renovated many temples in the State. He was succeeded by Marathanda Bhairava Thondaiman.
Marthanda Bhairava Thondaiman (1886–1928) became the ruler of the state at the age of 11. The administration was looked after by a council with the approval of the British government. He toured in Europe extensively. He married an Australian woman Mary Esme Sorrett Fink, known as 'Molly' in 1915. A son (Sydney Marthanda) was born to him though this marriage. But his succession was opposed by the public. The British administration also refused to recognise the marriage. Hence the Raja abdicated his throne and settled in France. He died in France in 1928 and cremated at London.
Raja Rajagopala Thondaiman (1928–1948) the last and ninth in the line of Thondaiman rulers, was selected by the British Government and was crowned when he was six years old. The administration was looked after by English administrators, among them Alexandar Totenham was noteworthy. The important architectural contribution of this period is the New Palace - which was built in 1930 in Indo - Serasenic Dravidian architecture. This granite structure now houses the District Collector's Office. After Indian independence in 1947, the Pudukkottai Princely State was amalgamated with Indian Union on 04/03/1948 and became a division in Tiruchirappalli district. The long history of the Thondaimans rule came to an end.
Such a brief historical sketch covering a period of time of over two millennia will beside acquainting one with the political forces and trends of the area located at the centre of Tamil Nadu, will help to appreciate the nature, variety, origin chronology and importance of the monuments their inscriptions architecture, sculptures iconography and other aesthetic contents.
The princely state of Pudukottai was created by Raghunatha Thondaiman.
Raghunatha Kilavan Setupati of Ramnad (1673–1708 A.D.) married Kathali Nachiar the sister of Thondaiman, he appointed his brother in law Raghunatha Thondaiman as a chief of the district of Pudukottai. Raghunatha Thondaiman was earlier ruling Thirumayam. In appreciation of Raghunatha Tondaman's services, Raghunatha Kilavan Setupati has given Pudukkottai as an honour for his services.
In later centuries, the Thondaiman rulers, while nominally feudatories of the Ramnad state, often pursued an independent foreign policy, a trend common in all parts of India
at that time. After the death of Raghunatha Kilavan Setupati he become ruler of Pudukottai.
After becoming the ruler of Pudukottai, Raghunatha Thondaiman fought against the Nayaks of Tanjore in support of the Nayaks of Madurai and conquered Thirukkattupalli a very important place. Then there was a direct clash between Thondaimans of Pudukottai and the Nayaks rulers of Tanjore. Thondaiman conquered the west of Thirukkattupalli.
The next ruler Raja Vijaya Reghunatha Raya Thondaiman he helped Arcot Nawab against Hyder Ali the ruler of Mysore. He was also loyal towards the British Government. After some time, when Hyder Ali’s army tried to enter into Pudukkottai, the Thondaiman’s army successfully defeated them and drove Hyder’s army away. Thondaiman captured Kilanilai and Aranthangi. He helped the British Government against Tipu Sultan.
Pudukkotai finally came under formal British protection. This was arguably unavoidable, since the Thondaimans were much menaced in that period by a resurgent Mysore ruled by Hyder Ali
and Tipu Sultan
. Tipu Sultan had sought to leverage the power of the French
against his British
adversaries, and Pudukkotai, in common with its neighbours such as Thanjavur and Travancore
, found it expedient to ally with the British
.
Raja Rajagopala Thondaiman (1928–1948) the last and ninth in the line of Thondaiman rulers, was selected by the British Government and was crowned when he was six years old. After Indian independence in 1947, the Pudukkottai Princely State was amalgamated with Indian Union on 04/03/1948 and became a division in Tiruchirappalli district. The long history of the Thondaimans rule came to an end.
of British India under the political authority of Madras Presidency
. The state had an area of 4663 Sq.miles and in 1901, a population of 380,000. The Rajas
of Pudukkotai were entitled to an 17-gun salute.
of Madras State
. The state was reorganised twice in the succeeding decade, taking its present form in 1956; it was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968. On 14 January 1974, the present Pudukkottai District
was formed from parts of Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur
districts.
and laterite
are quarried, red ochre is worked, and silk and cotton fabrics, bell-metal vessels and perfumes are among the principal manufactures. There is also some export trade in groundnuts and tanning
bark.
is spread over an area of 4649.93 km2. The Highways Department is maintaining 3550.95 km of Government
roads as abstracted below:
has 84 Kilometers of Broad gauge
railway lines with 12 Railway stations connecting Pudukkottai to Major centres in the state like Chennai
, Trichy, Karaikudi
, Rameswaram and Tirunelveli
as well as Quilon
in Kerala
State. Pudukkottai District is well served by the Trichy Railway Junction which has been connected by long distance express trains.
is Tiruchirapalli Airport
, which is about 50 km from Pudukkottai. Regular air services available between Trichy, Colombo
, Sharjah
, Chennai
, Kuwait
, Singapore
, Malaysia and Cochin.
Industrial Complex is located on Trichy - Rameswaram National Highways (NH 210). This Industrial complex is well connected by Road, Rail and Air. It was established in 1980. The allotment of land commenced in 1982 to accommodate Engineering and General Industries. The total extent of complex area is 421.1 acres (1.7 km²).
prevails in this district and this district's agricultural production depends mainly on the rainfall. The normal annual rainfall of Pudukkottai district is 922.8 mm. Out of which 52.2 mm is received in winter, 124.6 mm is received in hot weather period, 351.9 mm is received during South West Monsoon and 394.1 mm is received in North East Monsoon.
tanks available in this district out of which 172 tanks are system tanks fed by Grand Anaikat Channel and the remaining are rain fed tanks. There are about 55,137 wells in the district catering an area of 7791 Ha.
is the major crop
of this district. 90000 Ha. of area is covered under paddy
, out of which 135000 Ha. of area is fed with Cauvery Mettur Project through G.A. canal. The remaining area is well and tank fed. The present productivity level is 4.985 Mt. of Paddy
/Ha.Other than Paddy
, Groundnut
is the major crop in this district which is mainly cultivated under rain fed condition. Groundnut is being cultivated in 36000 Ha. as rain
fed crop and 8000 Ha. under irrigated condition Millet
, Pulse
, Cotton
, Sugarcane
, Gingelly are the other crops cultivated in this district.
* Sri Ilangudi Ayyanar Kovil, Ilangudipatti, Pudukkottai.
Municipality
A municipality is essentially an urban administrative division having corporate status and usually powers of self-government. It can also be used to mean the governing body of a municipality. A municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district...
in Pudukkottai district
Pudukkottai District
Pudukkottai District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. The city of Pudukkottai is the district headquarters...
in the India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n state
States and territories of India
India is a federal union of states comprising twenty-eight states and seven union territories. The states and territories are further subdivided into districts and so on.-List of states and territories:...
of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh...
. Pudukkottai District was carved out of Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur districts in January 1974.
It is the administrative headquarters of Pudukkottai District.
The well known Tamil actor Gemini Ganesan was born in Pudukkotai.
History
Many of the villages are of ancient foundation. The district was one of the homes of prehistoric man. A very large number of burial sites found in the northern and western parts of the district attest this fact.
A very brief sketch of political history is given here in order to appreciate and understand the mixed legacy of antiquities, monuments, epigraphs and the like. The history of Pudukkottai is an epitome of the history of South India. In and around Pudukkottai, there are many vestiges of the oldest habitations of man and some of the lithic records known in the south. The Pandyas, Cholas, Pallavas, Haysalas, Vijaynagar and Madurai Nayaks ruled over this part of the country and fostered its communal organisations, trade and industries and embellished it with temples and monuments of outstanding merit.
Sangam Tamil literatures mention some place names of the district. Oliyamangalam (Thirumayam Taluk) is called as Ollaiyur in Purananuru. It was the birthplace of poet Ollaiyur Kilan Makan Perumchattan and Ollaiyur Thantha Budha Pandyan. Agananuru also mentions Ollaiyur. It seems to have been an important city of the Pandyas. Four other places also find place in the Sangam classics. They are Ambukkovil, the ancient Alumbil, referred to in Agananuru; Avur the home of the poets Avurkilar, Avur Mulamkilar; Erichi, the ancient Erichalur which had been identified with Erichi Village in Pudukkottai - Aranthangi road (But according to recent researches a village near Illupur). It was probably the home of the poet Madalan Madurai Kumaranar. Avayapatti is traditionally associated with Avvaiyar, who is believed to have lived here for some time.
This district was under the Pandyas of the first empire during Sangam period, but some part of its northern boundary had been under the influence of the Cholas of Uraiyur, since a few villages here bear the prefix like "killi" and "valavan" both of which are the titles of the Cholas.
The district shares the large prosperity of the maritime trade of the Tamils, Karukkakurichi, the place of find of a treasure trove of more than 500 Imperial Roman Gold and Silver Coins, the largest ever recorded from a single hoard deserves notice in the context of the early history of the district. This place lies in Alangudi taluk, with in a short distance north of Aranthangi and the adjoining old ports of Mimisal and Saliyur in the same area and Tondi further south. The site of find would mark an important Indo-Roman trading centre, through which the inland trade route ran between the western and eastern ports during that time.
This is indicated by a chain of such Roman coin hoard sites such as Korkai, Kilakkarai, Alagankulam all on the eastern sea coast. While Karukkakuruchi is a bit inland but not far away from port like Mimisal. There are also few other sites of such finds in the east coast. These, while pointing out the exchanges of the exportable products for Roman gold and silver currency would also indicate the places mentioned to have been active trade centres. The Karukkakurichi hoard contained the issues of the Roman emperors and their queens, successively from Augustus (BC 29 – AD 14) up to Vaspasianus (69–79 AD).
From about the end of fourth century about the last quarter of sixth, the district, like many other parts of Tamil Nadu was under the Kalabhras. It must have come under the King Kurran, inscription of whom has been found in Pulankurichi near Ponnamaravathi in the district.
The next phase in the history of the district, follows the overthrow of Kalabharas by Kadungon in Pandya country about 590 AD. The first Pandya empire inaugurated by Kadungon spread in to the district. This is shown by the presence of inscription of the rulers of this dynasty in Kudumianmalai, Thirugokarnam and Sittannavasal. The poem, Pandimandala sathakam states that Pandya land's northern frontier was river Vellar. The Vellar that flows north of Pudukkottai town has been from the ancient times was the traditional boundary separating the terrains of the Cholas and Pandyas. This dividing line formed the Konadu and Kanadu, on the north and south respectively.
Thus the district became a kind of marchar land between the Pandyas and Pallavas. The Pandyas and Pallavas carried on the wars by proxy through their subordinate chiefs the Mutharayars and Velirs. Among the Velirs the most well known are the Irukkuvels of Kodumbalur. The Kodumbalur Velirs located in the political buffer zone between the kingdoms of the Cholas and Pandyas and formed the family of nobility from which kings and other chiefs made matrimonial alliance.
The period of three centuries between C 600 and C 900 AD relates to the reign of the Pallavas of Kanchi and Pandyas of Madurai who ruled over the entire Tamila Nadu with their boundary in between their empires oscillating on either side of river Kaveri the bone of contention being Cholamandalam the home of Cholas and the fertile Kaveri delta that was the granary of the south and as such always been the cynosure of all powers contending for supremacy during the entire historical period. The Cholas themselves were in eclipse and hibernating only to revive again in the ninth century, when the Pallava power came to an end, the Pandyas were holding on for some more time to yield place ultimately to the waxing Chola power.
Though Mahendravarma Pallava (604–630 A.D) inherited the Pallava empire from his victorious father Simhavishnu that reached up to the bank of the Cauvery, Cholamandalam could not be retained by his immediate successor, as it was over-run by the Pandyas of the further south. The tract north and south of river Vellar were in the hands of the Mutharayar chieftains who till their annihilation by the resurgent Chola line of Vijayalaya, were owing alternate allegiance to the super powers. The Irukkuvelirs, at the end became the firm allies of the Cholas.
Thus, one cannot expect to find early Pallava monuments, antiquities and inscriptions in Pudukkottai region but only those of the contemporary Pandyas along with those of Mutharaiyars and Irukkuvelirs. Later Pallavas wrested the tract from the hands of the Pandyas. The tract come under the Pallavas from the time of Nandhivarman-II (730–796 AD) when the Pallavas power reasserted itself in Cholamandalam and the tract south of Kaveri, reaching a little south beyond Vellar, comprising the northern half of the Pudukkottai district. This period is thus marked by the presence of rock cut cave temples of the Pandyas and Mutharaiyars.
The available historical evidence under the first Pandya empire is rather scanty. The best known is the inscription at Sittannavasal in the reign of Srimara Srivallaba (851–862 AD) and at Kudumianmalai in the reign of Kochadayan Ranadheeran or Sadayan Maran (C 700-730 AD). In the reign of Maravarman Rajasimha-I (C 730-760 AD) a number of battles were fought against the Pallavas, one of the sites was Kodumbalur. The inscription of the reign of Nedunchadayan, (C 768-816 AD) the greatest king of the dynasty is found in Thirugokarnam and Nirpalani. Of the reign of three successors of Srimara Srivallaba ending with Rajasimha-II (c. 920 AD) who lost his kingdom to the resurgent Cholas, there are no reference about the Pandya rulers in the district.
The Pallava references to places and incidents in the district are equally scanty. The earliest reference of the historical events in the district find place in the Pandya records of Velvikudi and Sinnamanur plates which say that Maravarman Rajasimha defeated Nadhivarman Pallava Malla at Kodumbalur. The inscriptions of his successors are found in Kunnandarkoil, Malayadipatti and Rasalipatti.
The age of Pallavas and Pandyas of the first empire, the Mutharaiyars and Irukkuvelirs was the age of Tamil Bhakthi Movement. The Thevaram mentions several temples in the district. The three Nayanmars from this district were, Idangalinayanar of Kodumbalur, Perumizhalai Kurumbanayanar associated with Devarmalai and Kulachirai Nayanar of Manamelgudi.
Jainism well flourished in Pudukkottai area up to 11th century. There are a number of Jaina vestiges in the district.
The Buddhist vestiges in the district come from the former Thanjavur district. Buddha idols are found at Kottaipattinam and Karur.
With the exit of Pallavas from the political scene and the subsequent elimination of the Pandya power by the Cholas who established themselves at Thanjavur as their capital at the close of 9th century. By 11th century they extended their sway even beyond, Tamilakam. Pudukkottai among many other places come under them. Their rule extended till about the middle of 13th century when the Pandyas staged a comeback.
Under Chola Vijayalaya, this district formed part of his dominion but perhaps fitfully. The notion that some temples of ninth century in the district, belong to early Chola period, is erroneous. The Pandyas still held power in the region. It was not until the reign of Parantaka-I (907–955 AD). Vijayalay's second successor, that the Cholas conquered the entire Pandya land. The Kodumbalur chiefs helped Parantaka in his campaign and remained faithful to the Cholas thereafter.
The rule of Rajaraja-I shows a brilliant part in the history of the district in common with that of Tamil Nadu. The full benefaction of the Chola rule is revealed in their inscriptions in the district. These inscriptions are of great value is showing how effectively local administration functioned in this part of Chola Kingdom.
Rajaraja-I appointed his son the viceroy of the conquered Pandya and Chera lands. The entire district formed part of the Chola kingdom until the last year of Kulothunga-III (1178-1218 AD). At the death of Rajaraja-II and the succession of Rajadhiraja-II, the Chola power began to decline.
The Pandyas began to assert their independence from the time of Kulothunga-I. Towards the end of the reign of Raja Raja-II, Kulasekara one of the two contenders for Pandya throne pealed the Chola for help. His rival Parakrama turned towards Srilanka. Pudukkottai also become seat this civil war. Parakrama Babu the Srilanka king sent an army to assist Parakrama Pandya according to Culavamsa, the Sinhalese chronicle the Sinhalese army engaged itself in the war in the parts of the district and burnt down the three storeyed palace at Ponnamaravathi. The outcome of the civil war became disastrous to the Cholas.
The history of the district after the fall of Cholas could not be told in detail for the records are comparatively minimal.. The Pandyas of the second empire spread their influence in the district gradually.
The Pandya power reached its height in the district under Jatavarman Sundra Pandya-I and Jatavaraman vira Pandya-I the joint rulers. The inscription of Virapandya in Kudumianmalai, throws much light on his relationship with Srilanka and his kingdom across the seas. During the reign of Maravarman Kulasekara-I who acceded in 1268 A.D, Marcopolo the Venetian traveler visited Pandya country. Towards the end of Kulasekara's reign Jatavarman Virapandya-II and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-II, the brothers quarreled. This led to a civil war in Pandya country resulting in political unrest and confusion.
Malikafur the general of Alaudeen Khalji the Sultan of Delhi took advantage of this and invaded Pandya country. This led to the incorporation of the Pandya country in the Delhi empire in subsequent years. A sultanate was established at Madurai. There are two inscriptions relating to the period of the Sultans of Madurai in the district, one at Rangiam (1332 AD) and another at Panaiyur (1344 A.D).
The brief spell of Muslim rule (Sultanate of Madurai) at Madurai lasted for about 75 years and again there was political unrest and chaos and Pudukkottai region also shared the fate. Minor princes ruled small territories here and there. By about 1371 AD. Kumarakampana, the Vijayanagar prince took over Madurai and the Sultanate came to an end. But the Pandya power did not survive on the Hindu conquest and slowly it ceased to be a historical force in the district.
The Hoysalas of Karnataka arrived in the southern part of Tamil Nadu and actively intervened Chola - Pandya feuds and soon they came to occupy the region on either banks of river Cauvery with the capital at Kannanur (modern Samayapuram). They established themselves in the area by the middle of 13th century and much of the Pudukkottai area was under their sway till the end of 13th century.
The Vijayanagar Rayas centered in Hampi took over Madurai, from the Muslims when the whole of southern Karnataka, Andra and Tamil Nadu came under one rule - the Vijayanagar empire.
Under the Vijayanagar Sangama dynasty (1336-1485 A.D) the inscriptions in the district refer to many local chiefs such as Suraikudi, Perambur, Sendavanmangalam, Vanadaraiyar, Gangaiaraiyar and Thondaimans of Aranthangi. During the brief Suluva rule (1485-1505 A.D) Narasimha Raya the first Suluva emperor, during a tour of his dominions passed through Pudukkottai country on his way to Madurai. Vira Narasimha Nayak, the Tuluva usurper and the general of Saluva Narasimha-I, led a campign against the Pandya chiefs and marched through Pudukkottai.
A great Personality of the Tuluva dynasty (1505-1570 A.D) was Krishna Deveraya (1509-1529 A.D). He had visited Brahadamba Gokarnesa temple at Thirugokarnam on his way to Rameswaram and gifted many valuable presents to the temple. Under his successor eastern part of Pudukkottai district formed part of the Thanjavur kingdom for some time and the rest was under the Madurai Nayaks. The Thondaimans of Pudukkottai rose to power by about the end of 17th century.
The provincial viceroys of the Vijayanagar empire, the Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur asserted independence after the downfall of the empire. The Pudukkottai area thus came under the Nayaks of Madurai nominally and under the Thanjavur Nayaks frequently.
The Thondaimans of Pudukkottai came to rule with full sovereignty over the Pudukkottai area from the middle of the 17th century till its amalgamation with the rest of India after Indian Independence in 1947.
The ancestors of the Pudukkottai ruling line of Thondaimans, are migrants from Thiruppathi region in the Thondaimandalam, the northern stretch of the ancient Tamil Kingdom, along with the Vijaynagar army, which was in engagement in this part of territory in the early 17th century. It is probable that one among them got some lands assigned to him by the local Pallavarayar chieftain and settled down at Karambakudi and Ambukovil area, and became the chieftain of the area, later came to be called as the progenitor of Thondaimans of Pudukkottai ruling house. According to the legendary account found in a Telugu poem, Thondaiman Vamasavali, the Thondaimans belonged to Indravamsa and the first ruler was Pachai Thondaiman.
Avadi Raya Thondaiman, the successor of Pachai Thondaiman, with the favour of Venkata Raya-III (1630-1642 A.D) the king of Vijayanagar got extended the land in his possession in the region and he was also conferred the title Raya. The Avadai Raya Thondaiman inherited Vijayanagar tradition and the Thondaimans of later period adopted it.
His son Ragunatha Raya Thondaiman came close to the Nayak of Thanjavur and Rangakrishna Muthuvirappa Nayak of Tiruchirappalli. He was appointed as the arasu kavalar of Tiruchirappalli. Vijaya Raghunatha Kilavan Sethupathi (1673-1710 A.D) the Sethupathi ruler of Ramanathapuram married Kathali Nachiar the sister of Thondaiman. This marriage strengthened the ties between these dynasties. The Sethupathi presented the tract of land to the south of Vellar to the Thondaiman. Thus the Pudukkottai territory was enlarged. This account is called the Sethupathi origin of Pudukkottai country and expansion of Thondaiman rule. the Thondaiman's rule was established south of Vellar and Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman was in estimation to the status of a bigger territory by about 1686 A.D., and he ruled up to 1730 A.D.
About the time that Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman became the ruler of Pudukkottai, Namana Thondaiman, his brother became the chief of Kulathur Palayam (present Kulathur taluk area) with the blessings of the Nayak king Ranga Krishna Muthuvirappa of Tiruchirappalli (1682-1689 A.D) and Kulathur continued as separate "principality - with its ruler known as Kulathur Thondaiman " till about 1750 A.D when it was annexed to Pudukkottai. Reghunatha also got some territories by victory, consolidating Pudukkottai rule roughly constituting the former Kulathur, Alangudi and Thirumayam taluks. The tract contained in these taluks, later came to be known as Pudukkottai State (Pudukkottai Samasthanam).
Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Thondaiman (1730-1769 A.D) was the second in the line of Thondaimans. During his period the whole of India come under the umbrella of the Mughals. The Nayakdoms of Ginjee, Thanjavur and Madurai were subjugated and became tributaries of the Mughal rule so also the smaller palayams which were under them. The Nizam of Hydrabad was appointed as the Mughal representative of South India, in turn the Nizam entrusted the Tamil Nadu region then known as Carnatic, to the Nawab of Arcot. Many of the tributory states did not remit the tributes regularly and such provinces were invaded by the Nawab's forces. Nothing like this happened in the case of Pudukkottai and was left undisturbed by the Nawab.
The famous war of succession to the office of Nawab of Carnatic between Mohamad Ali and Chanda Sahib, became in due course a war of supermacy between the English and the French in South India which resulted in the Carnatic wars. The French supported the cause of Chanda Sahib and the English were on the side of Mohamed Ali. The war lasted for many years mainly around Tiruchirappalli. The Thondaiman was firmly on the side of the English at his time while the rulers like Thanjavur Marathas wavered. At last the English emerged as the masters of this land. This firm help of the Thondaiman to the English was rewarded by the exemption of tribute by the victorious Nawab and later this was continued by the English.
The Thondaiman's act of friendship towards English continued by the next ruler Raya Raghunatha Thondaiman (1769–1789 A.D). Because of this the Thondaiman had to encounter the strong forces of Hyder Ali.
Vijaya Raghunatha Thondaiman (1789–1807 A.D) helped the English and the Nawb. The Nawab Mohamed Ali conferred up on the Thondaiman the title "Raja Bahadur". The political wind was in favour of the English. The entire Carnatic region was taken over by the English by 1800. During the process of consolidation of the English rule, the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom was taken away, Ramanathapuram was reduced to a Jamindari but Pudukkottai was on the firm grounds and it was allowed to be separate principality (not as a part of British India) with honours and was high in British favour. Pudukkottai was treated as a State and the Raja was quasi-independent ruler with full powers of administration.
It was during the time of this ruler Vijaya Raghunatha Thondaiman, the Poligar war took place between the English and the rebellious palayakars of Thirunelveli, the most significant of whom was Veerapandia Kattabomman or Kattabommu Nayak. Kattabomman defied the authority of English in collecting revenues on the Sicar lands and also in remitting the tribute regularly. Hostilities commenced against him, and Panchalamkurichy fort was attacked. Kattabomman escaped and was proceeding to Sivaganga through the forest in the Thondaiman country. At the request of the English administration Kattabomman was captured near Thirumayam by the soldiers of Thondaiman and handed over to the English at Madurai. Later Kattabomman was hanged at Kayattar. The defiant valour of Kattabomman came to be better appreciated with the passage of time. While Kattabomman has risen in general estimation as a hero, the image of Thondaiman as reflected in the events of the time, has suffered a fall because capturing and handing over of Kattabomman and come to be regarded as betrayal and as an unpatriotic act. Seen however in the political background then prevailed in the context of Thondaiman's fidelity to the English in prosperity and adversity and to the fact that Kattabomman never sought asylum with Thondaiman and hence the Thondaiman's role may objectively summed up as the reflex action of the ally and does not amount to betrayal.
The next ruler Raja Vijaya Reghunatha Raya Thondaiman (1807-1825 AD) was crowned when he was a minor and the British Government appointed Major John Black Burn, to undertake the management of the province of Pudukkottai. Since he was the former Resident of Thanjavur he brought to Pudukkottai a good deal of Thanjavur administration of Maratha mystique and Marathi was the language of administration of Pudukkottai for about seventy five years. Revenue and Judicial administration of same method and complexity were introduced in Pudukkottai. A palace with citadels and broad moat was constructed for the Thondaiman (the old palace in the centre of the town). The town was planned with straight roads bisecting each other in the four directions of the palace and thus Black Burn laid the foundation for modern town of Pudukkottai. (This palace, "The old palace" has disappeared completely, we can see the remains of the high wall in a few places in the vicinity of the present west main street and south main street (Rajaveethi)).
Raghunatha Thondaiman (1825–1839 A.D) was conferred with the title "His Excellency" by the British Government. He planned in 1830 to bring the Cauvery water to Pudukkottai through a new canal but could not succeed due to paucity of funds. Raghunatha Thondaiman was succeeded by his son Ramachandra Thondaiman (1839–1886).
His long tenure of office was marked by extravagance and gross mismanagement. An administrator Seshaia Sastri arrived at the scene as Dewan in 1878 and carried out many reforms. Among them was the remodelling of Pudukkottai town incorporating the principles of town planning which were little followed in the country at that time. The towering administrative office building in red brick colour in Pudukkottai was constructed under the supervision of Seshaiah Sastri. The Pudukkulam, the big lake in the town was another creation of Seshaiah Sastri. Ramachandra Thondaiman has renovated many temples in the State. He was succeeded by Marathanda Bhairava Thondaiman.
Marthanda Bhairava Thondaiman (1886–1928) became the ruler of the state at the age of 11. The administration was looked after by a council with the approval of the British government. He toured in Europe extensively. He married an Australian woman Mary Esme Sorrett Fink, known as 'Molly' in 1915. A son (Sydney Marthanda) was born to him though this marriage. But his succession was opposed by the public. The British administration also refused to recognise the marriage. Hence the Raja abdicated his throne and settled in France. He died in France in 1928 and cremated at London.
Raja Rajagopala Thondaiman (1928–1948) the last and ninth in the line of Thondaiman rulers, was selected by the British Government and was crowned when he was six years old. The administration was looked after by English administrators, among them Alexandar Totenham was noteworthy. The important architectural contribution of this period is the New Palace - which was built in 1930 in Indo - Serasenic Dravidian architecture. This granite structure now houses the District Collector's Office. After Indian independence in 1947, the Pudukkottai Princely State was amalgamated with Indian Union on 04/03/1948 and became a division in Tiruchirappalli district. The long history of the Thondaimans rule came to an end.
Such a brief historical sketch covering a period of time of over two millennia will beside acquainting one with the political forces and trends of the area located at the centre of Tamil Nadu, will help to appreciate the nature, variety, origin chronology and importance of the monuments their inscriptions architecture, sculptures iconography and other aesthetic contents.
Thondaiman dynasty
Raghunatha Kilavan Setupati of Ramnad (1673–1708 A.D.) married Kathali Nachiar the sister of Thondaiman, he appointed his brother in law Raghunatha Thondaiman as a chief of the district of Pudukottai. Raghunatha Thondaiman was earlier ruling Thirumayam. In appreciation of Raghunatha Tondaman's services, Raghunatha Kilavan Setupati has given Pudukkottai as an honour for his services.
In later centuries, the Thondaiman rulers, while nominally feudatories of the Ramnad state, often pursued an independent foreign policy, a trend common in all parts of India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
at that time. After the death of Raghunatha Kilavan Setupati he become ruler of Pudukottai.
After becoming the ruler of Pudukottai, Raghunatha Thondaiman fought against the Nayaks of Tanjore in support of the Nayaks of Madurai and conquered Thirukkattupalli a very important place. Then there was a direct clash between Thondaimans of Pudukottai and the Nayaks rulers of Tanjore. Thondaiman conquered the west of Thirukkattupalli.
The next ruler Raja Vijaya Reghunatha Raya Thondaiman he helped Arcot Nawab against Hyder Ali the ruler of Mysore. He was also loyal towards the British Government. After some time, when Hyder Ali’s army tried to enter into Pudukkottai, the Thondaiman’s army successfully defeated them and drove Hyder’s army away. Thondaiman captured Kilanilai and Aranthangi. He helped the British Government against Tipu Sultan.
Pudukkotai finally came under formal British protection. This was arguably unavoidable, since the Thondaimans were much menaced in that period by a resurgent Mysore ruled by Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born Hyder Naik, he distinguished himself militarily, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's rulers...
and Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan , also known as the Tiger of Mysore, was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the son of Hyder Ali, at that time an officer in the Mysorean army, and his second wife, Fatima or Fakhr-un-Nissa...
. Tipu Sultan had sought to leverage the power of the French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
against his British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
adversaries, and Pudukkotai, in common with its neighbours such as Thanjavur and Travancore
Travancore
Kingdom of Travancore was a former Hindu feudal kingdom and Indian Princely State with its capital at Padmanabhapuram or Trivandrum ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. The Kingdom of Travancore comprised most of modern day southern Kerala, Kanyakumari district, and the southernmost parts of...
, found it expedient to ally with the British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
.
Raja Rajagopala Thondaiman (1928–1948) the last and ninth in the line of Thondaiman rulers, was selected by the British Government and was crowned when he was six years old. After Indian independence in 1947, the Pudukkottai Princely State was amalgamated with Indian Union on 04/03/1948 and became a division in Tiruchirappalli district. The long history of the Thondaimans rule came to an end.
List of Thondaiman Kings
- Raghunatha Raya TondaimanRaghunatha Raya TondaimanRaja Sri Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman was the ruler of the Pudukkottai kingdom from 1686 to 1730. Starting his career as a feudatory chieftain of the Sethupathi of Ramnad, in 1686, Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman was recognised as the independent ruler of Pudukkottai by the Sethupathi for the services he...
(1686–1730) - Vijaya Raghunatha Raya TondaimanVijaya Raghunatha Raya TondaimanVijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman may refer to* Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman I , the ruler of Pudukkottai state from 1730 to 1769.* Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman II , the ruler of Pudukkottai state from 1807 to 1825....
(1730–1769) - Raya Raghunatha TondaimanRaya Raghunatha TondaimanRaja Sri Raya Raghunatha Tondaiman was the ruler of Pudukkottai kingdom from 28 December 1769 to 30 December 1789.- Early life :...
(1769 – Dec 1789) - Vijaya Raghunatha TondaimanVijaya Raghunatha TondaimanRaja Sri Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman Bahadur was the ruler of the kingdom of Pudukkottai from 30 December 1789 to 1 February 1807.- Early life :...
(Dec 1789 – 1 February 1807) - Vijaya Raghunatha Raya TondaimanVijaya Raghunatha Raya TondaimanVijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman may refer to* Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman I , the ruler of Pudukkottai state from 1730 to 1769.* Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman II , the ruler of Pudukkottai state from 1807 to 1825....
(1 February 1807 – June 1825) - Raghunatha TondaimanRaghunatha TondaimanHis Excellency Raja Sri Raghunatha Tondaiman Bahadur was the ruler of the princely state of Pudukkottai from 4 June 1825 to 13 July 1839.- Early life :...
(June 1825 – 13 July 1839) - Ramachandra TondaimanRamachandra TondaimanRaja Sri Brahdamba Dasa Raja Ramachandra Tondaiman Bahadur was the ruler of princely state of Pudukkottai from July 13, 1839 to April 15, 1886.- Early life :...
(13 July 1839 – 15 April 1886) - Marthanda Bhairava Tondaiman (15 April 1886 – 28 May 1928)
- Rajagopala TondaimanRajagopala TondaimanRaja Sri Brahdamba Dasa Raja Sri Rajagopala Tondaiman Bahadur was the ninth and last ruler of the princely state of Pudukkottai.- Early life :...
(28 October 1928 – 4 March 1948)
Princely state
Pudukkottai became a princely statePrincely state
A Princely State was a nominally sovereign entitity of British rule in India that was not directly governed by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of indirect rule such as suzerainty or paramountcy.-British relationship with the Princely States:India under the British Raj ...
of British India under the political authority of Madras Presidency
Madras Presidency
The Madras Presidency , officially the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India...
. The state had an area of 4663 Sq.miles and in 1901, a population of 380,000. The Rajas
Rajas
Rajas ) is, in the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, one of the three gunas. Of these, rajas, is responsible for motion, energy and preservation...
of Pudukkotai were entitled to an 17-gun salute.
Post-independence
The last Thondaiman raja of Pudukkottai acceded to newly-independent India in 1948, and the state became a division of Tiruchirappalli DistrictTiruchirappalli district
Tiruchirapalli District , also known as Tiruchchirapalli District or Trichy District, is located along the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu, India...
of Madras State
Madras State
Madras State was the name by which the Indian districts in Tamil Nadu, Andhra, Northern Kerala, Bellary and Dakshina Kannada were collectively known as from 1950 to 1953....
. The state was reorganised twice in the succeeding decade, taking its present form in 1956; it was renamed Tamil Nadu in 1968. On 14 January 1974, the present Pudukkottai District
Pudukkottai District
Pudukkottai District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. The city of Pudukkottai is the district headquarters...
was formed from parts of Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur
Thanjavur District
Thanjavur District is one of the 32 districts of the state of Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. Its headquarters is Thanjavur.-Geography:...
districts.
Geography and climate
The state consists mainly of an undulating plain, nowhere of great fertility and in many parts barren; it is interspersed with rocky hills, especially in the southwest. GraniteGranite
Granite is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, felsic, igneous rock. Granite usually has a medium- to coarse-grained texture. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic...
and laterite
Laterite
Laterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock...
are quarried, red ochre is worked, and silk and cotton fabrics, bell-metal vessels and perfumes are among the principal manufactures. There is also some export trade in groundnuts and tanning
Tanning
Tanning is the making of leather from the skins of animals which does not easily decompose. Traditionally, tanning used tannin, an acidic chemical compound from which the tanning process draws its name . Coloring may occur during tanning...
bark.
| Summer | Winter | |
| Max. | 38 °C (100.4 °F) | 34 °C (93.2 °F) |
| Min. | 21 °C (69.8 °F) | 18 °C (64.4 °F) |
Tourist places
- Government Museum, Thirukkokarnam, Pudukkottai
- New Pool (Pudhu Kulam)
- Sittannavasal (Famous for cave paintings)
- Kudimiyanmalai
- Thirumayam (Fort Uoomayan Kottai)
- Narthamalai
- Sastharkovil (Preserving Deities)
- Anna Pannai
- Avudaiyarkoil (Temple of Athmanatha, utsavamurti of the temple is Manikkavasakar)
- Thirugokarnam (It is the tutelary deity of Thondaiman rulers of Pudukkottai.)
- Kodumbalur (ancient place mentioned in Silappadikaram)
- Avur (The old chapel here was constructed in 1547 A.D. by Father John Venantius Bouchet)
- St. Santhanamatha church amaradakki.
- St. Sabastiyar church kolendiram.
- Setti kulam Alangudi.
Roadways
Pudukkottai Revenue DistrictDistrict
Districts are a type of administrative division, in some countries managed by a local government. They vary greatly in size, spanning entire regions or counties, several municipalities, or subdivisions of municipalities.-Austria:...
is spread over an area of 4649.93 km2. The Highways Department is maintaining 3550.95 km of Government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
roads as abstracted below:
| Class | Length (km) |
|---|---|
| National Highways/Expressways | 148.40 |
| State Highways | 278.40 |
| Corporation and Municipalities Road | 125.75 |
| Panchayat Union and Panchayat Road | 2998.40 |
| Town Panchayat and Townships Road | Nil |
| Others (Forest Roads) | Nil |
| Total (approx) | 3550.95 |
Railways
This districtDistrict
Districts are a type of administrative division, in some countries managed by a local government. They vary greatly in size, spanning entire regions or counties, several municipalities, or subdivisions of municipalities.-Austria:...
has 84 Kilometers of Broad gauge
Broad gauge
Broad-gauge railways use a track gauge greater than the standard gauge of .- List :For list see: List of broad gauges, by gauge and country- History :...
railway lines with 12 Railway stations connecting Pudukkottai to Major centres in the state like Chennai
Chennai
Chennai , formerly known as Madras or Madarasapatinam , is the capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal. Chennai is the fourth most populous metropolitan area and the sixth most populous city in India...
, Trichy, Karaikudi
Karaikudi
Karaikudi is a town in Sivaganga District in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.Chettinad literally 'Chetti land' in Tamil, is a collection of 76 villages/towns. Chettinad stretched from Ramnad District and Pudukottai State of 'British' India. The Chettiars, or more properly the Nattukottai...
, Rameswaram and Tirunelveli
Tirunelveli
Tirunelveli , also known as Nellai , and historically as Tinnevelly, is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the headquarters of the Tirunelveli District and the sixth biggest city in Tamil Nadu...
as well as Quilon
Quilon
Quilon may refer to,* Venad, a former state on Malabar Coast, India* Kollam , Kerala state, India* Kollam district, Kerala state...
in Kerala
Kerala
or Keralam is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was created on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions....
State. Pudukkottai District is well served by the Trichy Railway Junction which has been connected by long distance express trains.
Port and Airport
The nearest seaport for this district is Tuticorin, which is situated 350 km from this district. The nearest AirportAirport
An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport...
is Tiruchirapalli Airport
Tiruchirapalli Airport
Tiruchirapalli Airport or Trichy Airport is an airport mostly serving Tiruchirapalli and adjacent districts in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. The airport, located on the NH 210 Tiruchirapalli - Rameswaram highway, is south of the city centre....
, which is about 50 km from Pudukkottai. Regular air services available between Trichy, Colombo
Colombo
Colombo is the largest city of Sri Lanka. It is located on the west coast of the island and adjacent to Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte, the capital of Sri Lanka. Colombo is often referred to as the capital of the country, since Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte is a satellite city of Colombo...
, Sharjah
Sharjah (city)
Sharjah is the third largest and most populous city in the United Arab Emirates. It is located along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula.Sharjah is the seat of government of the emirate of Sharjah...
, Chennai
Chennai
Chennai , formerly known as Madras or Madarasapatinam , is the capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal. Chennai is the fourth most populous metropolitan area and the sixth most populous city in India...
, Kuwait
Kuwait
The State of Kuwait is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the...
, Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
, Malaysia and Cochin.
Economy
The SIPCOTSIPCOT
The State Industries Promotion Corporation of Tamil Nadu , Limited is an institution owned by the government of Tamil Nadu and is intended as a catalyst for the development of small, medium and large scale industries in Tamil Nadu. It was established in 1972.SIPCOT has established industrial...
Industrial Complex is located on Trichy - Rameswaram National Highways (NH 210). This Industrial complex is well connected by Road, Rail and Air. It was established in 1980. The allotment of land commenced in 1982 to accommodate Engineering and General Industries. The total extent of complex area is 421.1 acres (1.7 km²).
Agriculture
Pudukkottai district is predominantly an agricultural oriented district. Generally a dry and hot climateClimate
Climate encompasses the statistics of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological elemental measurements in a given region over long periods...
prevails in this district and this district's agricultural production depends mainly on the rainfall. The normal annual rainfall of Pudukkottai district is 922.8 mm. Out of which 52.2 mm is received in winter, 124.6 mm is received in hot weather period, 351.9 mm is received during South West Monsoon and 394.1 mm is received in North East Monsoon.
Irrigation
There are 5,385 IrrigationIrrigation
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall...
tanks available in this district out of which 172 tanks are system tanks fed by Grand Anaikat Channel and the remaining are rain fed tanks. There are about 55,137 wells in the district catering an area of 7791 Ha.
Major Crops
PaddyRice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
is the major crop
Crop
Crop may refer to:* Crop, a plant grown and harvested for agricultural use* Crop , part of the alimentary tract of some animals* Crop , a modified whip used in horseback riding or disciplining humans...
of this district. 90000 Ha. of area is covered under paddy
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
, out of which 135000 Ha. of area is fed with Cauvery Mettur Project through G.A. canal. The remaining area is well and tank fed. The present productivity level is 4.985 Mt. of Paddy
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
/Ha.Other than Paddy
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
, Groundnut
Peanut
The peanut, or groundnut , is a species in the legume or "bean" family , so it is not a nut. The peanut was probably first cultivated in the valleys of Peru. It is an annual herbaceous plant growing tall...
is the major crop in this district which is mainly cultivated under rain fed condition. Groundnut is being cultivated in 36000 Ha. as rain
Rain
Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. Rain requires the presence of a thick layer of the atmosphere to have temperatures above the melting point of water near and above the Earth's surface...
fed crop and 8000 Ha. under irrigated condition Millet
Millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
, Pulse
Pulse
In medicine, one's pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed against a bone, such as at the neck , at the wrist , behind the knee , on the inside of the elbow , and near the...
, Cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
, Sugarcane
Sugarcane
Sugarcane refers to any of six to 37 species of tall perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum . Native to the warm temperate to tropical regions of South Asia, they have stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sugar, and measure two to six metres tall...
, Gingelly are the other crops cultivated in this district.
Important religious structures in Pudukkottai District
- Arulmigu sri Papathi Amman Alayam,Pachikkottai
- Sri Kathali Vaneshwarar Temple, Thirukkalambur.
- Sri porpanai kottai muneeswarar kovil- porpanaikottai,pudukkottai.
- Arulmigu Nei Nandeeswarar Temple, Venthanpatti
- Dharma Sastha Kovil - Kannankarakudi, Pudukkottai.
- sri Putradi Mahasakthi Mariyamman kovil - Bharathiyar Nagar, Pudukkottai
- Sri Periyanagi Ambal Sametha Arangulanathar Temple - Thiruvarangulam, Pudukkottai.
- Sri Pitari Amman Temple - Thiruvarangulam, Pudukkottai.
- Sri Vetriyaandavar temple Venkitakulam
- Murugan Temple,Kumaranmalai(Pulvayal)
- Ulaganayaki Ambaal Temple,Kollampatti,Pulvayal
- Sri Chithi Vinayagar Temple,Namakkottai
- Arulmighu Malaiyandi Temple,Valayapatti
- Arulmigu Dharmasamvarthini Sri Namapureeswarar Temple, Alangudi
- Sri Perungaraiyadi Meenda Ayyanar TempleSri Perungaraiyadi Meenda Ayyanar TempleSri Perungaraiyadi Meenda Ayyanar Temple is one of the famous temples in Pudukkottai District, Tamil Nadu. It is located at Kulamangalam in Alangudi Taluk.- History :...
,Kulamangalam - Sri Muthumariyamman Temple, VadakaduVadakaduVadakadu is one of the largest villages in Alangudi, Tamil Nadu, India.Mariamman Temple is a Hindu temple in the village. The temple's annual festival falls in May as well as Sithirai....
- Sri Muthumariyamman Temple,Kothamangalam
- Subramaniya swamy thirukovil, Viralimalai
- Admanathaswamy Temple, Avudayarkoil
- Kokarneswarar Temple, Thirukkokarnam
- Sri Bragadhambal Temple, Pudukkottai
- Sri Thiruvapur Muthumariyaman Temple,Pudukkottai
- Sri Viruthapureeswarar Temple, Thiruppunavasal
- Veeramakali amman Temple, Aranthangi and Perambur(Andakulam)
- Meiyyanathar Temple, Thirumayam
- Mariyamman Temple, Thiruvappur
- Mariyamman Temple, Naarthamalai and Senthakudi
- Bhuvaneshwariamman Temple, Pudukkottai
- T.E.L.C Church, Machuvadi, Pudukkottai
- Fire Prayer Vision Ministries, Ashok Nagar, Pudukkottai
- The Mountain Of Jesus Church, Ashok Nagar, Pudukkottai
- Sacred Heart Church, Marthandapuram, Pudukkottai
- Moovar and Ivar Temple, Kodumbalur
- Sri Naadiyaman Temple, Keelathur and Alangudi
- Sri Dharma Sastha Temple, Kannankarakudi (Sastharkovil)
- Sri SelvaVinayagar Koil, Maligaipunchai (Aranthangi)
- Sri MuthuMariyamman Koil, Silattur (Aranthangi)
- Jagadeeshwara temple Manamelkudi
- Arulmigu Shree Kudikathaamman koil,Maravanpatti & Silattur
- sri alagambal thirukkovil alagambalpuram.
- Sivan Kovil, Arimalam
- Perungkaraidi meenta Ayyanar temple,kulamangalam south
- Sri Muthumariyamman Kovil, Konnaiyur .
- Poi Solla Meyyar and Ponniah Temple, Moolangudi.
- sri sithi venayagar temple [sammattivituthy] pudukkottai[dist]
- arulmigu kamakshiamman temple [melappanaiyur]pudukkottai[district]
- muthumariyamman temple konnaiyur
- Periya Pallivasal, South 2nd Street, Pudukkottai.
- Noor Masjid, South 3rd Street, Pudukkottai.
- Mela Pallivasal, Mela raja veethi Pudukkottai.
- Sri Varadharaja Perumal koil, pudukkottai
- Sri naaganadhaswamy kovil, Peraiyur Pudukkottai[District].
- Sri Kamatchiamman and peatchiamman Thirukkovil, Malukkanpatti, PudukkottaiDistrict.
* Sri Ilangudi Ayyanar Kovil, Ilangudipatti, Pudukkottai.
Education
Pudukkottai is home to many schools and colleges. The arts and science college HH The Rajah's college (Autonomous) was established in 1857 by maharaja of pudukkottai. It is a autonomous college run by government with a motto "Thamasoma Jyotirgmaya" (Irulil irunthu oliyai nokki) sighifying "Darkness to light", this college is working hard to fulfilling the needs of higher education at the regional level.Further reading
- Nicholas B. Dirks, The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of An Indian Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987, ISBN 0-521-32604-4.
- Edward DuykerEdward DuykerEdward Duyker is an Australian historian and author born in Melbourne, Victoria, to a father from the Netherlands and a mother from Mauritius...
& Coralie Younger,Molly and the Rajah: Race, Romance and the Raj, Australian Mauritian Press, Sylvania, 1991, pp. xii, 130, ISBN 0-646-03679-3
External links
- Pudukkottai District web site
- Genealogy of the Tondaiman dynasty
- Pudukkottai Virtual Heritage Tour
- Pudukkottai Discussion Forum
- Silattur Engineers Association PUDUKKOTTAI DIST
See also
- Pudukkottai (Lok Sabha constituency)Pudukkottai (Lok Sabha constituency)Pudukkottai was a Lok Sabha constituency in Tamil Nadu. After delimitation in 2009, it is now a defunct constituency.-Assembly segments:Pudukkottai Lok Sabha constituency was composed of the following assembly segments :...
- Chola NaduChola NaduChola Nadu is a region of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. It encompasses the lower reaches of the Kaveri River and its delta, and formed the cultural homeland and political base of the Chola Dynasty which ruled most of South India and parts of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia between the 9th and...
- Thanjavur
- Tiruchirappalli