Pundravardhana
Encyclopedia
This article is about the historical territory. For the Mahabharata
kingdom see Pundra Kingdom
Pundravardhana ( Punḍrobôrdhon), was a territory located in North Bengal
(mainly in what is now Bangladesh
) in ancient times, home of the Pundra, a group of people speaking languages not of the Indo-European
family.
texts like Aitereya Aryanaka of 8th-7th century BC, the Pundra was a group of non-Aryan people who lived east of the river Sadanira. The Mahabharata
also made a similar reference. In the 1st century AD, the land was mentioned as Pundravardhana for the first time in Asokadana.
, the ancient capital of Pundravardhana is located 11 km (7 mi) north of Bogra
on the Bogra
-Rangpur
highway, with a feeder road (running along the eastern side of the ramparts of the citadel for 1.5 km) leading to Jahajghata and site museum.
who begot on the queen of the Asura king Bali five sons named Anga
, Vanga
, Suhma
, Pundra
and Kalinga
. They founded the five states named after them. The lands of the despised Pundra and Vangas were not only seats of powerful kings but also flourishing centres of Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanical religion. It signifies the first stage of Aryanisation between 5th century BC and 4th century AD.
in Bogra District
of Bangladesh
, was located in the territory of Pundravardhana.
While the Pundras and their habitat were looked down upon as impure in later Vedic literature because they fell beyond the pale of Vedic culture, an inscription written in Prakrit
in the Brāhmī script
of 3rd century BC, found at Mahasthangarh
, ancient site of Pundranagara, indicates that the area imbibed, like adjoining Magadha, many elements of Aryan culture. Buddhism was introduced into North Bengal, if not other parts of Bengal, before Asoka. Two Votive inscriptions on the railings of the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi
of about 2nd century BC records the gifts of two inhabitants of Punavadhana which undoubtedly stands for Pundravardhana. The impact of Aryan
-Brahmana
culture was felt in Bengal much after the same spread across northern India. The various non-Aryan people then living in Bengal were powerful and thus the spread of Aryan-Brahman culture was strongly resisted and the assimilation took a long time.
The Mauryans
were the first to establish a large empire spread across ancient India, with headquarters at Pataliputra (modern Patna
), which was not very far from Pundranagara. Therefore, it is possible that the Mauryans conquered Pundravardhana. The end of the Maurya rule around 185 BC was followed by a period of small kingdoms and chaos till the advent of the Guptas
in the 4th century AD. Copper plates of the Gupta period mentioned their eastern division as Pundravardhana bhukti (bhukti being a territorial division). The Gupta Empire faced decline in the 6th century AD and the area may have fallen to the Tibetan king Sambatson in 567-79. Subsequently, Bengal was carved into two empires, Samatata
in the east and Gauda
in the west. There is mention of Pundravardhana being part of Gauda in certain ancient records. It was part of Shashanka
’s kingdom in the 7th century AD.
(Hiuen Tsang), did not mention any king of Pundravardhana in his itinerary records. He travelled from Kajangala
to Kamarupa
through Pundravardhana.
Xuanzang, referred to Pundravardhana as follows:
There are certain references that go to indicate that Pundravardhana lost its eminence in the 7th-8th century. Archaeological excavations at Mahasthangarh indicate the use of the citadel during the Pala
period till 12th century AD but no more as a power-centre. It was part of the empire of Chandra kings and Bhoj Verma The early Muslim rulers from 13th century onwards may have used the territory but by then it was no more important, its identity gradually faded and it became part of the surrounding area. Even the main city or capital of Pundravardhana, Pundravardhananagar or Paundravardhanapur, lost its identity and came to be known as Mahasthan.
, a dervish
(holy person devoted to Islam) of royal lineage who came to the Mahasthan area, with the objective of spreading Islam amongst non-Muslim people. He converted the people of the area to Islam and settled there.
, Bogra
, Pabna
(in Bangladesh), and Dinajpur
(both in India and Bangladesh). According to the Damodarpur copperplate inscription of the time of Budhagupta (c 476-94 AD) the northern limit of Pundravardhana was the Himalayas
. The administrative and territorial jurisdiction of Pundravardhana expanded in the Pala period. In the Pala
, Chandra and Sena
periods Pundravardhana included areas beyond the geographical boundaries of North Bengal. Varendri or Varendri-mandala was a metropolitan district of Pundravardhana. This is supported by several inscriptions. Varendra or Varendri finds a mention primarily from the 10th century AD onwards, at a time when Pundravardhana was in decline.
Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay
says, “Only North Bengal is not meant by Pundravardhana bhukti, what we now call East Bengal
was also part of Pundravardhana or Pundravardhana bhukti. In a copper plate during the rule of Keshab Sendeb, son of Lakshman Sen
deb, i.e. in the 12 century AD, Pundravardhana or Pundravardhana bhukti included areas up to Bikrampur
.” In the south Pundravardhana extended to localities in the Sundarbans
.
mentions a road from Pundravardhana to Pataliputra. Xuanzang travelled from Kajangala to Pundravardhana, thereafter crossed a wide river and proceeded to Kamarupa
. There are indications about a road from Pundravardhana to Mithila
, then passing through Pataliputra and Buddha Gaya on to Varanasi
and Ayodhya, and finally proceeding to Sindh
and Gujarat. It must have been a major trade route.
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
kingdom see Pundra Kingdom
Pundra Kingdom
Pundra was an eastern kingdom located in West Bengal, Bangladesh and Purnia . A Pundra king challenged Vasudeva Krishna by imitating his attributes. He called himself Paundraka Vasudeva. He was later killed by Vasudeva Krishna in a battle...
Pundravardhana ( Punḍrobôrdhon), was a territory located in North Bengal
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
(mainly in what is now Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Bangladesh , officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma to the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south...
) in ancient times, home of the Pundra, a group of people speaking languages not of the Indo-European
Indo-European
Indo-European may refer to:* Indo-European languages** Aryan race, a 19th century and early 20th century term for those peoples who are the native speakers of Indo-European languages...
family.
Etymology
There are several theories regarding the word ‘Pundra’. According to one theory the word ‘Pundra’ owes its origin to a disease called ‘Pandu’. The land where most of the people were suffering from that disease was called Pundrakshetra (land of Pundra). Punda is a species of sugarcane. The land where that species of sugarcane was extensively cultivated was called Pundadesa (land of Punda). According to later VedicVedas
The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
texts like Aitereya Aryanaka of 8th-7th century BC, the Pundra was a group of non-Aryan people who lived east of the river Sadanira. The Mahabharata
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
also made a similar reference. In the 1st century AD, the land was mentioned as Pundravardhana for the first time in Asokadana.
Geography
MahasthangarhMahasthangarh
Mahasthangarh is the earliest urban archaeological site so far discovered in Bangladesh. The village Mahasthan in Shibganj thana of Bogra District contains the remains of an ancient city which was called Pundranagara or Paundravardhanapura in the territory of Pundravardhana...
, the ancient capital of Pundravardhana is located 11 km (7 mi) north of Bogra
Bogra District
Bogra is a northern district of Bangladesh, in the Rajshahi Division. It is called the gateway to the north Bengal. It is an industrial city where many small and mid sized industries are housed. Bogra district was a part of the ancient Pundravardhana territory and Bogra was the capital of...
on the Bogra
Bogra District
Bogra is a northern district of Bangladesh, in the Rajshahi Division. It is called the gateway to the north Bengal. It is an industrial city where many small and mid sized industries are housed. Bogra district was a part of the ancient Pundravardhana territory and Bogra was the capital of...
-Rangpur
Rangpur District
The district of Rangpur have 4924 mosques, 480 temples, 43 churches and six tombs.In an anthropologic view most people of Rangpur are having Rajbagshi blood in their veins...
highway, with a feeder road (running along the eastern side of the ramparts of the citadel for 1.5 km) leading to Jahajghata and site museum.
Discovery
Several personalities contributed to the discovery and identification of the ruins at Mahasthangarh. F.Buchanan Hamilton was the first European to locate and visit Mahasthangarh in 1808, C.J.O’Donnell, E.V.Westmacott, and Baveridge followed. Alexander Cunningham was the first to identify the place as the capital of Pundravardhana. He visited the site in 1889.Pundra people
The Pundra were people mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The Digvijay section of Mahabharata places them to the east of Monghyr and associates them with the prince who ruled on the banks of the Kosi. The epigraphs of the Gupta period and ancient Chinese writers place Pundravardhana, land of the Pundras, in North Bengal.Mythology
There is a story of Rishi DīrghatamasDirghatamas
Dīrghatamas was an ancient sage well known for his philosophical verses in the RgVeda. He was author of Suktas 140 to 164 in the first Mandala of the RgVeda.-Background:...
who begot on the queen of the Asura king Bali five sons named Anga
Anga Kingdom
Anga was a kingdom ruled by non-Vedic rulers. Anga king Lomapada was a friend of Kosala king Dasaratha. Kosala Princess Santha, elder to Raghava Rama, lived as the daughter of Lomapada, since he was childless. Duryodhana established Karna as the ruler of Angas. It is believed that there were many...
, Vanga
Vanga Kingdom
Vanga orBengal was a kingdom located in the eastern part of the Indian Subcontinent, comprising part of West Bengal, India and present-day modern Bangladesh. It was a seafaring nation of Ancient India.- References in Mahabharata :...
, Suhma
Suhma Kingdom
Suhma was an eastern kingdom located in regions now occupied by West Bengal, India and Bangladesh. This kingdom was mentioned in the epic Mahabharata along with its neighbouring kingdom Prasuhma, which was in the present day Bangladesh...
, Pundra
Pundra Kingdom
Pundra was an eastern kingdom located in West Bengal, Bangladesh and Purnia . A Pundra king challenged Vasudeva Krishna by imitating his attributes. He called himself Paundraka Vasudeva. He was later killed by Vasudeva Krishna in a battle...
and Kalinga
Kalinga Kingdom
Kalinga forms the sea shore of Orissa and Andhra region of Andhra pradesh state in India. Kuru king Duryodhana's wife was from Kalinga. Kalingas sided with Duryodhana in the Kurukshetra War...
. They founded the five states named after them. The lands of the despised Pundra and Vangas were not only seats of powerful kings but also flourishing centres of Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanical religion. It signifies the first stage of Aryanisation between 5th century BC and 4th century AD.
Ancient period
Pundranagara or Paundravardhanapura, the ruins of which are located on the banks of the KaratoyaKaratoya River
Karatoya River , a small stream in Rajshahi Division of Bangladesh, was once a large and sacred river. A channel of it presently flows by the ancient ruins of Mahasthangarh in Bogra District. The Karatoya mahatmya bears testimony to its past greatness...
in Bogra District
Bogra District
Bogra is a northern district of Bangladesh, in the Rajshahi Division. It is called the gateway to the north Bengal. It is an industrial city where many small and mid sized industries are housed. Bogra district was a part of the ancient Pundravardhana territory and Bogra was the capital of...
of Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Bangladesh , officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India on all sides except for a small border with Burma to the far southeast and by the Bay of Bengal to the south...
, was located in the territory of Pundravardhana.
While the Pundras and their habitat were looked down upon as impure in later Vedic literature because they fell beyond the pale of Vedic culture, an inscription written in Prakrit
Prakrit
Prakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
in the Brāhmī script
Brāhmī script
Brāhmī is the modern name given to the oldest members of the Brahmic family of scripts. The best-known Brāhmī inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to the 3rd century BCE. These are traditionally considered to be early known examples of Brāhmī writing...
of 3rd century BC, found at Mahasthangarh
Mahasthangarh
Mahasthangarh is the earliest urban archaeological site so far discovered in Bangladesh. The village Mahasthan in Shibganj thana of Bogra District contains the remains of an ancient city which was called Pundranagara or Paundravardhanapura in the territory of Pundravardhana...
, ancient site of Pundranagara, indicates that the area imbibed, like adjoining Magadha, many elements of Aryan culture. Buddhism was introduced into North Bengal, if not other parts of Bengal, before Asoka. Two Votive inscriptions on the railings of the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi
Sanchi
Sanchi is a small village in Raisen District of the state of Madhya Pradesh, India, it is located 46 km north east of Bhopal, and 10 km from Besnagar and Vidisha in the central part of the state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the location of several Buddhist monuments dating from the 3rd...
of about 2nd century BC records the gifts of two inhabitants of Punavadhana which undoubtedly stands for Pundravardhana. The impact of Aryan
Aryan
Aryan is an English language loanword derived from Sanskrit ārya and denoting variously*In scholarly usage:**Indo-Iranian languages *in dated usage:**the Indo-European languages more generally and their speakers...
-Brahmana
Brahmana
The Brāhmaṇas are part of the Hindu śruti literature. They are commentaries on the four Vedas, detailing the proper performance of rituals....
culture was felt in Bengal much after the same spread across northern India. The various non-Aryan people then living in Bengal were powerful and thus the spread of Aryan-Brahman culture was strongly resisted and the assimilation took a long time.
The Mauryans
Maurya Empire
The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC...
were the first to establish a large empire spread across ancient India, with headquarters at Pataliputra (modern Patna
Patna
Paṭnā , is the capital of the Indian state of Bihar and the second largest city in Eastern India . Patna is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world...
), which was not very far from Pundranagara. Therefore, it is possible that the Mauryans conquered Pundravardhana. The end of the Maurya rule around 185 BC was followed by a period of small kingdoms and chaos till the advent of the Guptas
Gupta Empire
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed approximately from 320 to 550 CE and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta, the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the...
in the 4th century AD. Copper plates of the Gupta period mentioned their eastern division as Pundravardhana bhukti (bhukti being a territorial division). The Gupta Empire faced decline in the 6th century AD and the area may have fallen to the Tibetan king Sambatson in 567-79. Subsequently, Bengal was carved into two empires, Samatata
Samatata
The Kingdom of Samatata was a kingdom in ancient Bengal, located at the mouth of the Brahmaputra river in the south east of Bengal. It was a vassal to the Gupta Empire....
in the east and Gauda
Gauḍa region
Gauda , was a territory located in Bengal in ancient and mediaeval times.-Location and extent:The Arthashastra of Chanakya refers to it along with Vanga, Pundra and Kamarupa. This geographical idea continues with some of the ancient texts...
in the west. There is mention of Pundravardhana being part of Gauda in certain ancient records. It was part of Shashanka
Shashanka
Shashanka is often attributed with creating the first separate political entity in a unified Bengal called Gauda and as such is a major figure in Bengali history. He reigned in 7th century AD, and some historians place his rule approximately between 590 AD and 625 AD. He is the contemporary of...
’s kingdom in the 7th century AD.
Decline
During his visit to the area in 639-45, the Chinese monk, XuanzangXuanzang
Xuanzang was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period...
(Hiuen Tsang), did not mention any king of Pundravardhana in his itinerary records. He travelled from Kajangala
Kajangala
Kajangala , refers to a territory located near Rajmahal in ancient times, in eastern part of India.-Extent:It was spread across what is now part of Birbhum district in West Bengal and Santhal Parganas in Jharkhand.-History:...
to Kamarupa
Kamarupa (History)
Kamarupa, also called Pragjyotisha, was the first historical kingdom in Assam that existed between 350 and 1140 CE i.e for almost 800 years. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-day Guwahati and Tezpur, it covered the entire Brahmaputra river valley and, at times, North Bengal...
through Pundravardhana.
Xuanzang, referred to Pundravardhana as follows:
- There were twenty Buddhist Monasteries and above 3,000 Brethren, by whom the ‘Great and Little Vehicles’ were followed; the Deva-Temples were 100 in number, and the followers of various sects lived pell-mell, the Digambar Nirgranthas being very numerous.
There are certain references that go to indicate that Pundravardhana lost its eminence in the 7th-8th century. Archaeological excavations at Mahasthangarh indicate the use of the citadel during the Pala
Pala Empire
The Pāla Empire was one of the major middle kingdoms of India existed from 750–1174 CE. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala , which means protector. The Palas were often described...
period till 12th century AD but no more as a power-centre. It was part of the empire of Chandra kings and Bhoj Verma The early Muslim rulers from 13th century onwards may have used the territory but by then it was no more important, its identity gradually faded and it became part of the surrounding area. Even the main city or capital of Pundravardhana, Pundravardhananagar or Paundravardhanapur, lost its identity and came to be known as Mahasthan.
Spread of Islam
At Mahasthan is located the mazhar (holy tomb) of Shah Sultan Balkhi MahisawarShah Sultan Balkhi Mahisawar
Shah Sultan Balkhi Mahisawar was a 14th century Muslim saint. He preached Islam in Bogra District or Pundravardhana.-Who was he:...
, a dervish
Dervish
A Dervish or Darvesh is someone treading a Sufi Muslim ascetic path or "Tariqah", known for their extreme poverty and austerity, similar to mendicant friars in Christianity or Hindu/Buddhist/Jain sadhus.-Etymology:The Persian word darvīsh is of ancient origin and descends from a Proto-Iranian...
(holy person devoted to Islam) of royal lineage who came to the Mahasthan area, with the objective of spreading Islam amongst non-Muslim people. He converted the people of the area to Islam and settled there.
Extent
Pundravardhana, comprised areas of present-day RajshahiRajshahi District
Rajshahi District is a district in north-western Bangladesh. It is a part of the Rajshahi Division. The metropolitan city of Rajshahi is in Rajshahi District.-Geography:...
, Bogra
Bogra District
Bogra is a northern district of Bangladesh, in the Rajshahi Division. It is called the gateway to the north Bengal. It is an industrial city where many small and mid sized industries are housed. Bogra district was a part of the ancient Pundravardhana territory and Bogra was the capital of...
, Pabna
Pabna District
Pabna District is a district in north-western Bangladesh. It is the southern most district of Rajshahi Division. Its administrative capital is eponymous Pabna town.-Geography:Pabna forms the south-east boundary of Rajshahi Division...
(in Bangladesh), and Dinajpur
Dinajpur District, Bangladesh
Dinajpur is a district in Northern Bangladesh. It is a part of the Rangpur Division.- Geography :Dinajpur is bounded by Thakurgaon and Panchagarh districts in the north, Gaibandha and Joypurhat districts in the south, Nilphamari and Rangpurdistricts in the east, and the state of West Bengal, India...
(both in India and Bangladesh). According to the Damodarpur copperplate inscription of the time of Budhagupta (c 476-94 AD) the northern limit of Pundravardhana was the Himalayas
Himalayas
The Himalaya Range or Himalaya Mountains Sanskrit: Devanagari: हिमालय, literally "abode of snow"), usually called the Himalayas or Himalaya for short, is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau...
. The administrative and territorial jurisdiction of Pundravardhana expanded in the Pala period. In the Pala
Pala Empire
The Pāla Empire was one of the major middle kingdoms of India existed from 750–1174 CE. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala , which means protector. The Palas were often described...
, Chandra and Sena
Sena dynasty
The Sena Empire was a Hindu dynasty that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. At its peak the empire covered much of the north-eastern region in the Indian Subcontinent. They were called Brahma-Kshatriyas, as evidenced through their surname, which is derived from the Sanskrit,...
periods Pundravardhana included areas beyond the geographical boundaries of North Bengal. Varendri or Varendri-mandala was a metropolitan district of Pundravardhana. This is supported by several inscriptions. Varendra or Varendri finds a mention primarily from the 10th century AD onwards, at a time when Pundravardhana was in decline.
Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay
Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay
Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay , also known as R. D. Banerji, was an Indian historian and a native Indian pioneer in the fields of Indian archaeology, epigraphy and palaeography. He was the Manindra Chandra Nandy Professor of Ancient Indian History and Culture at the Banaras Hindu University from 1928-30...
says, “Only North Bengal is not meant by Pundravardhana bhukti, what we now call East Bengal
East Bengal
East Bengal was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded to the modern state of Bangladesh. Both instances involved a violent partition of Bengal....
was also part of Pundravardhana or Pundravardhana bhukti. In a copper plate during the rule of Keshab Sendeb, son of Lakshman Sen
Lakshman Sen
Lakshman Sen was the fourth king of the Sen dynasty of Bengal, who ruled for about 28 years. Lakshman Sen succeeded his father Ballal Sen...
deb, i.e. in the 12 century AD, Pundravardhana or Pundravardhana bhukti included areas up to Bikrampur
Bikrampur
Bikrampur pargana is situated 12 miles south of Dhaka, the modern-day capital of Bangladesh. It lies in the Munshiganj District of Bangladesh. It is a historic region in Bengal. The region is famous for its early Buddhist scholarships and in the later period for its cultural influences...
.” In the south Pundravardhana extended to localities in the Sundarbans
Sundarbans
The Sundarbans [Sundarban Tour Booking-9051115228] is the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world.The name Sundarban can be literally translated as "beautiful jungle" or "beautiful forest" in the Bengali language...
.
External links
The numerous waterways of the region were the main channels of transportation. However, there are references in ancient literature to some roads. Somadeva’s KathasaritsagaraKathasaritsagara
Kathasaritsagara is a famous 11th-century collection of Indian legends, fairy tales and folk tales as retold by a Saivite Brahmin named Somadeva....
mentions a road from Pundravardhana to Pataliputra. Xuanzang travelled from Kajangala to Pundravardhana, thereafter crossed a wide river and proceeded to Kamarupa
Kamarupa (History)
Kamarupa, also called Pragjyotisha, was the first historical kingdom in Assam that existed between 350 and 1140 CE i.e for almost 800 years. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-day Guwahati and Tezpur, it covered the entire Brahmaputra river valley and, at times, North Bengal...
. There are indications about a road from Pundravardhana to Mithila
Mithila
Mithila was a city in Ancient India, the capital of the Videha Kingdom. The name Mithila is also commonly used to refer to the Videha Kingdom itself, as well as to the modern-day territories that fall within the ancient boundaries of Videha...
, then passing through Pataliputra and Buddha Gaya on to Varanasi
Varanasi
-Etymology:The name Varanasi has its origin possibly from the names of the two rivers Varuna and Assi, for the old city lies in the north shores of the Ganga bounded by its two tributaries, the Varuna and the Asi, with the Ganges being to its south...
and Ayodhya, and finally proceeding to Sindh
Sindh
Sindh historically referred to as Ba'ab-ul-Islam , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran". Though Muslims form the largest religious group in Sindh, a good number of Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus can...
and Gujarat. It must have been a major trade route.